Suvarna Garge (Editor)

Timeline of the discovery and classification of minerals

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The chemical elements were discovered in identified minerals and with the help of the identified elements the mineral crystal structure could be described. Georgius Agricola is considered the 'father of mineralogy'. One milestone was the discovery of the geometrical law of crystallization by René Just Haüy, a further development of the work by Nicolas Steno and Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle (the characterisation of a crystalline mineral needs knowledge on crystallography). Other milestones were the notion that metals are elements too (Antoine Lavoisier) and the periodic table of the elements by Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev. The overview of the organic bonds by Kekulé was necessary to understand the silicates, first refinements described by Bragg and Machatschki; and it was only possibly to understand a crystal structure with Dalton's atomic theory and Goldschmidt's explanations. Specific gravity, streak (streak color and mineral hardness) and X-ray powder diffraction are quite specific for a Nickel-Strunz identifier (9 ed./10 ed.). Nowadays, non-destructive electron microprobe analysis is used to get the empirical formula of a mineral. Finally, the International Zeolite Association (IZA) took care of the zeolite frameworks (part of molecular sieves and/or molecular cages).

Contents

There are only a few thousand mineral species and 83 geochemically stable chemical elements combine to form them. The mineral evolution in the geologic time context were discussed and summarised by A. G. Zhabin (and subsequent Russian workers), Robert M. Hazen, William A. Deer, Robert A. Howie and Jack Zussman.

Prehistoric Period / Before Theophrastus (before 400 BC)

  • Neolithic Age (new stone era) beginning about 10,200 years ago: flint tools (diagenesis of marine microfossils, microcristalline opal and chalcedony), jade tools (usually nephrite, jadeitite or jadeite-jade is less common), kaolin earth (adobe bricks made by drying of clay), copper, gold, silver and rocksalt. Locally, beads of turquoise and lazurite are found.
  • Note: nephrite is a microcristalline variety of tremolite (ferro-actinolite–tremolite solid solution series); white nephrite is almost pure tremolite and iron gives nephrite its green colour.
  • Bronze Age, Near East (3600-1200 BC), Europe (3600-600 BC), Indian Subcontinent (3300-1200 BC).
  • Chalcolithic Age (copper age) beginning about 7,000 years ago copper, gold, silver, mercury.
  • In the early Bronze Age, lead was used with antimony and arsenic.
  • The use of meteoric iron–nickel alloy has been traced as far back as 3500 BC.
  • Iron Age, Ancient Near East (1300-600 BC), India (1200-200 BC), Europe (1200 BC – 400 AD).
  • Illustration, Book of Exodus 28:17-20 cites following decorative stones (list of precious stones in the Bible):
  • First row: a sardius stone (sard), and a topaz (at that time, a gem chrysolite/peridot, a variety of forsterite), and an emerald (a variety of beryl).
  • Second row: a carbuncle (a red gemstone, almandine-pyrope series), a sapphire (lazurite, or a variety of corundum), and a jasper (usually green, red, brown or yellow chalcedony).
  • Third row: a ligurius (a red transparent variety of zircon), an agate, and an amethyst.
  • Fourth row: chrysolite (at that time, it might be a yellow topaz from the east), an onyx (black onyx), and a beryl.
  • Note: the fosterite–fayalite solid solution series is called olivine.
  • Ancient Egypt, illustrations:
  • Ancient Egyptian funerary practices: a natural material found in Wadi Natrun is used (a mixture of natron and rocksalt (?)). The iconic gold burial mask of Tutankhamun, has inlays of turquoise, lapis lazuli, carnelian and coloured glass. Eye shadow (kohl) using black galena, green malachite, stibnite, lead or coal, for instance.
  • Persian Empire (728–330 BC period) and Babylonian Empire: blue (lapis lazuli) glazed bricks, for instance (Ishtar Gate, Pergamon Museum).

    • Before Agricola (c. 1500)

  • Greco-Roman period:
  • De Anima Libri III of Aristotle (4th century BC). Description of mercury (metal).
  • Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BC)
  • Theophrastus (1956). Theophrastus On Stones: Introduction, Greek text, English translation, and Commentary (315 BC) (PDF). Translated by John F. Richards, Earle Radcliffe Caley. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University. p. 238. 
  • Illustration: zircon (lyncurion of Theophrastus), chrysocolla, agate, cinnabar, orpiment, realgar, tourmaline.
  • The oldest known pills were made of the zinc carbonates hydrozincite (described 1853) and smithsonite (described 1832). Calamine is a historic name for an ore of zinc (hemimorphite (IMA1962 s.p.) and smithsonite).
  • De architectura (about 15 BC) of Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, Libri X, vol. VII, Caput 8. Note: description of natural mercury from the Cilbian fields near the former Greek city of Ephesus.
  • Pedanius Dioscorides (1557). De materia medica Libri V (PDF) (in Latin). Translated by Cornarius J. Basileae: Froben. pp. 454–455.  Book V: Minerals, description of melanterite (50 AD) and chalcanthite (70 AD).
  • Naturalis Historia (77 AD) of Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder, 23 AD – 25 August 79 AD).
  • Illustration: turquoise (callais of Pliny), tourmaline, almandine (alabandicus of Pliny), sard, moroxite (apatite var.), calcite, magnetite, emery (corundum, hematite and magnetite), atramentum sutorium (goslarite, melanterite), misy from Cyprus (copiapite, hydroniumjarosite, jarosite, natrojarosite).
  • Note: Alabandicus is a stone worked at Alabanda (an ancient city of Caria, Anatolia).
  • Pliny the Younger (61 – c. 113 AD), Epistulae (Letters): description of calcite and beryl.
  • "Orphic Lithica" (c. IV AD) describes curing of ailments by 30 stones.
  • Isidore of Seville (c. 600 AD) Etymologiae.
  • Turkish traveller Muḥammad Abū’l-Qāsim Ibn Ḥawqal: Ibn Hawqal (977 AD) "The Face of the Earth".
  • Abū al-Rayhān Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Bīrūnī (973–1048): Al-Biruni (1000) The Book Most Comprehensive in Knowledge On Precious Stones. He considers "zarnarrud" (emerald) and "zabarjad" (peridot) the same mineral.
  • Uzbek (Persian) scholar and physician, Avicenna (about 980 – June 1037). He wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived.
  • Illustration, elements known to the ancients (about 1000 AD, timeline of chemical elements discoveries): carbon, sulfur, iron, arsenic, antimony, zinc, copper, lead, silver, tin, gold, mercury.
  • Marbode (1100).
  • Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great, 1193/1206 – November 15, 1280). Isolation of arsenic.
  • Prior to the Spanish conquest (1492):
  • Pre-Columbian Americans used platinum.
  • Ancestral Puebloans (Anasazi) traded with turquoise.
  • Theophrast von Hohenheim (Paracelsus, 1493–1541), Swiss-born physician: description of bismuth and naming of zinc (1526).
  • Alchemist Alexander von Suchten (about 1520 – 1575)
  • De Secretis Antimonij liber vnus, Straßburg (1570); Zween Tractat, Vom Antimonio, Mömpelgard (1604); Antimonii Mysteria Gemina, Leipzig (1604)
  • Alchemist Johann Thölde (about 1565 – about 1614). He is probably one of the authors behind the pseudonym Basilius Valentinus and so he published about antimony. He published works by Alexander von Suchten and he published under his own name too, so his literature isn't clear.
  • Alchemist Vannoccio Biringuccio (1959). De la pirotechnia (1540). Dover books on earth sciences: Dover Classics of Science and Mathematics. Translated by Cyril Stanley Smith and Martha Teach Gnudi. Courier Dover Publications. p. 477. ISBN 9780486261348. 
  • The book has a chapter about antimony ('antimony' means here its sulfide, antimonite or stibnite). The isolation of antimony was accomplished in the German territory at this time.
  • Illustration:
  • Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom: the Black Prince's Ruby (a spinel) was given in 1367 to its namesake, Edward of Woodstock (the "Black Prince").
  • There are three large peridots probably from the 12th century in the Shrine of the Three Magi in Cologne Cathedral, they were believed to be emeralds.

    • After Agricola (c. 1500)

  • Bermannus sive de re metallica (1530), De re metallica, Libri XII (On Metals, 1556; twelve "volumes"); De natura fossilium (On the Nature of Rocks, 1546) and De veteribus et novis metallis (1546), Libri X; Interpretatio Germanica vocum rei metallicae (1546); of Georg Agricola. He is "father of mineralogy".
  • Illustration: borax (chrysocolla of Agricola), marcasite (lebererz of Agricola), lazurite (sapphis of Agricola), spinel, wolframite (hübnerite–ferberite series), copiapite, orpiment, fluorite.
  • De omni rerum fossilium genere, gemmis, lapidibus, metallis, et huiusmodi, libri aliquot, plerique nunc primum editi (1565) of Conrad Gesner, description of cerussite (synthetic lead carbonate was known as "ceruse") and alunite (as "alumen de Tolpha").
  • Théodore de Mayerne (1573 – 1654 or 1655), Swiss-born physician who treated kings of France and England: calomel's description (treatment with mercury(I) chloride, specially against syphilis).
  • Song Yingxing (1637) "Tiangong Kaiwu" (translated: "The Exploitation of the Works of Nature"): description of kaolin earth from Gaoling or Kauling, Fuliang County.
  • Note: common kaolin earth bearing iron oxide and organic impurities can be used in the earthenware production, but not in the porcelain production.
  • de Boodt, Anselmus; Tollius, Adrianus (1647). Gemmarum et Lapidum Historia (3 ed.). Maire. p. 576.  Note: first definitive work of modern mineralogy.
  • Nicols, Thomas (1652). A Lapidary or, The History of Precious Stones: With Cautions for the Undeceiving of all those that deal with Precious Stones (1 ed.). Cambridge: printed by Thomas Buck. p. 239.  Note: it was written with the help of 'de Boodt's' book.
  • Hennig Brand (c. 1630 – c. 1710), discovery of phosphorus (around 1669).
  • Nicolas Steno (1669). De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento.  He is one of the founders of modern stratigraphy and modern geology.
  • Carolus Linnaeus (1758). Systema Naturae (10 ed.).  It develops the binomial nomenclature for the species of the Tree of Life.
  • Note: the binomial nomenclature could not be used for minerals. The species of the Tree of Life are relatives of each other: modern evolutionary synthesis. It is easier to administrate c. 5,000 valid minerals. A mineral classification needs the contributions of: Nicolas Steno, Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier, Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle, René Just Haüy, John Dalton, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, August Kekulé, Victor Goldschmidt and analytics by X-ray powder diffraction and electron microprobe, etc.
  • Georg Brandt (26 June 1694 – 29 April 1768), discovery of cobalt (c. 1735).
  • Johan Gottschalk Wallerius (1747). Mineralogia, eller Mineralriket. Stockholm.  Note: he renamed Agricola's Lupi spuma (1546, tungsten, element symbol "W"), in Wolfrahm (German, 1747).
  • Daniel Rutherford (1749 – 1819), isolation of nitrogen (1772).
  • Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794), naming of oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783), prediction of silicon (1778) and establishment of sulfur as an element (1777).
  • Sir David Brewster (1781–1868) was a Scottish physicist, who studied the optical properties of minerals.
  • Carl Wilhelm Scheele (9 December 1742 – 21 May 1786), discovery of oxygen with Priestley; identification of molybdenum, tungsten, barium, hydrogen, and chlorine.
  • Joseph Priestley (13 March 1733 – 6 February 1804), discovery of oxygen with Scheele.
  • Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle (1783) Cristallographie 2 ed. Note: 3 volumes and atlas.
  • Carl Abraham Gerhard (1786). Grundriß des Mineralsystems. Himburg. p. 310.  Note: based on the Abraham Gottlob Werner's lectures.
  • Axel Fredrik Cronstedt (1788). An Essay Towards a System of Mineralogy. London.  Note: 2 volumes.
  • Jean-Claude Delamétherie (1743–1817):
  • Jean-Claude Delamétherie (1797). Théorie de la Terre (2 ed.). Paris: Maradan.  Note: 5 volumes.
  • Jean-Claude Delamétherie (1812). Leçons de minéralogie: données au Collège de France. Paris: Mme. Ve. Courcier.  Note: 2 volumes.
  • Christian August Siegfried Hoffmann (1789). Mineralsystem des Herrn Inspektor Werners mit dessen Erlaubnis herausgegeben von C A S Hoffmann.  Note: 2 volumes, based on the Abraham Gottlob Werner's lectures, as well; years later Breithaupt expanded it (1841).
  • Johann Gottfried Schmeisser (1795). A System of Mineralogy: formed chiefly on the plan of Cronstedt. 
  • Johan Gadolin (5 June 1760 – 15 August 1852), discovery of yttrium (1789).
  • Richard Kirwan (1794–96). Elements of Mineralogy (2 ed.). London. 

    • After Haüy's Traité de Minéralogy (after 1799)

  • René Just Haüy (1801). Traité de Minéralogie.  Note: 5 volumes. He is "father of modern crystallography".
  • William Gregor (25 December 1761 – 11 June 1817), discovery of titanium (1791).
  • Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1 December 1743 – 1 January 1817), discovery of uranium (1789), zirconium (1789); establishment of tellurium, strontium, cerium and chromium.
  • Jöns Jacob Berzelius (20 August 1779 – 7 August 1848), discovery of silicon (1824), selenium (1817), thorium (1858), and cerium (1803, with Klaproth).
  • John Dalton (1766–1844), British physicist and chemist (Dalton's atomic theory, 1800 and later).
  • French physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775–1836) suggests the element fluorine (1810).
  • Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet (17 December 1778 – 29 May 1829), discovery of sodium (1807), potassium (1807), calcium (1808), magnesium (1808), boron (1808); isolation of chlorine (1810), barium (1808); identification of aluminium.
  • Amedeo Avogadro proposes the Avogadro's law (1811).
  • Johann Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann (1813). Handbuch der Mineralogie. Göttingen.  Note: 3 volumes.
  • Johann Christoph Ullmann (1814). Eine systematisch-tabellarische Uebersicht der mineralogisch-einfachen Fossilien. Kassel and Marburg: Kriedgerschen Buchhandlung. 
  • 1828, William Nicol (1770–1851), Scottish geologist and physicist, He invented the Nicol prism, the first device for obtaining plane-polarized light.
  • François Sulpice Beudant (1832). Traité Élémentaire de Minéralogie (2 ed.). Paris. 
  • Dana, James Dwight (1837). A System of Mineralogy (1 ed.). New Haven. p. 580. 
  • Heuland, H.; Lévy, A. (1837). Description d'une collection de mineraux, forme par M. Henri Heuland, et appartenant M. Ch. H. Turner, de Rooksnest, dans le comptd de Surrey en Angleterre. London: Adolphe Richter et Compagnie.  Note: 3 volumes.
  • Johann Friedrich August Breithaupt (16 May 1791 – 22 September 1873)
  • Friedrich Mohs (1825). Treatise on mineralogy, or, The natural history of the mineral kingdom by Frederick Mohs. Translated by Johann Friedrich August Breithaupt. Edinburgh: Hurst, Robinson.  Note: translated from the German, with considerable additions.
  • Johann Friedrich August Breithaupt (1841). Vollstaendiges Handbuch der Mineralogie.  Note: 4 volumes.
  • Wilhelm Karl von Haidinger (1845). Handbuch der bestimmenden Mineralogie. Vienna.  Note: Tables (1846).
  • Ernst Friedrich Glocker (1793–1858)
  • Glocker E F (1839). Grundriss der Mineralogie mit Einschluss der Geognosie und Petrefactenkunde. Nürnberg: Johann Leonhard Schrag. 
  • Glocker E F (1847). Generum et Specierum Mineralium. Secundum Ordines Naturales Digestorum Synopsis. Apud Eduardum Anton. 
  • Glocker E F (1847). "Ordo XVIII. Hydrolyti. I. Hydrolyti ametalli. 6. Halites". Generum et Specierum Mineralium. Secundum Ordines Naturales Digestorum Synopsis. Apud Eduardum Anton. pp. 288–304.  Note: it redefines rocksalt (a rock) and defines the mineral halite.
  • Spectroscopy (c. 1859): Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887) and Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (1811–1899)
  • Brothers Gustav Rose (1798–1873) and Heinrich Rose (1795–1864), German mineralogists.
  • Carl Friedrich Rammelsberg (1813–1899), professor of inorganic chemistry, Berlin University.
  • Karlsruhe Congress (3 to 5 September 1860): on the meeting's last day reprints of Stanislao Cannizzaro's (1826–1910) paper on atomic weights (1858), in which he utilized earlier work by Amedeo Avogadro, were distributed. This definition on atoms and molecules made the efforts by Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–1895) on the periodic table of elements, possible.
  • Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (8 February 1834 – 2 February 1907), periodic table (1869), with less than 70 elements in 1871.
  • Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran finds eka-aluminium (gallium, 1875), samarium (1879) and dysprosium (1886); Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac finds ytterbium (1878) and gadolinium (1880-1886, with P.E.L. de Boisbaudran); Marc Delafontaine, Jacques-Louis Soret and Per Teodor Cleve discover holmium (1878–79); Lars Fredrik Nilson finds eka-boron (scandium, 1879); Carl Auer von Welsbach finds praseodymium and neodymium (1885) and Clemens Winkler finds eka-silicon (germanium, 1886).
  • Illustration: aeschynite-(Ce) (published 1830) got its name "shame" because the chemical analysis of a mixture of rare-earth elements is difficult.
  • Auguste Bravais (1811–1863): Bravais lattices (1850).
  • Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz (also August Kekulé) (1829–1896): description of the carbon bonds in organic compounds (1857/72).
  • Adam G J (1869). Tableau Minéralogique. Libraire des Corps Impériaux des Ponts et Chaussées et des Mines. Paris: Dunod. 
  • Adam G J (1869). "Tableau Minéralogique". Annales des mines: ou recueil de mémoires sur l'exploitation des mines et sur les sciences qui s'y rapportent. 15. 
  • Karl Harry Ferdinand Rosenbusch (1892). Mikroskopische Physiographie der Petrographisch Wichtigen Mineralien. Stuttgart: E.Schweizerbart'sche Verlagshandlung (E. Koch). 
  • Paul Heinrich von Groth (1843–1927) suggests the possibility that spherical atoms (Dalton's atomic theory) reside at equivalent positions of space lattices (1888).
  • Leonhard Sohncke (1842–1897): Sohncke's space groups (1876).
  • Henry Clifton Sorby (1826–1908), an English microscopist and geologist. His major contribution was the development of techniques for studying iron and steel with microscopes.
  • Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932) defines the mole, he received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry (1909). He, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff (1852–1911), and Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927) are usually credited with being the modern founders of the field of physical chemistry.
  • Max von Laue (1879–1960): diffraction of X-rays by crystals (1912).
  • Arthur Moritz Schoenflies (1853–1928) und Evgraf Fedorov (1853–1919): characterisation of all 230 crystal space groups (1890/91).
  • William Lawrence Bragg (1890–1971) and William Henry Bragg (1862–1942): law on the diffraction of X-rays by crystals (1912). They are Nobel Prize for Physics laureates (1915).
  • 1912, Herbert Hoover (1874–1964; 31st President of the United States, 1929–1933) and his wife Lou Henry Hoover (1874–1944) translate George Agricola's De Re Metallica to English. Note: many mining expressions/words were Mediaeval German expressions, these expressions/words didn't exist in Classical Latin.
  • Henry G. J. Moseley (1887–1915), Moseley's law (1913).

    • After the World War I gap (after 1915)

  • January 1916, 'American Mineralogist', first issue.
  • 1916, X-ray powder diffraction: "Peter Debye (1884–1966) – Paul Scherrer (1890–1969) powder method".
  • 1919, founding of the Mineralogical Society of America (MSA).
  • Georg Menzer (1897–1989) solves the first crystal structure of garnet (1925).
  • Jean Perrin (1870–1942), Nobel Prize in Physics laureate (1926), largely for his work in determining the Avogadro constant.
  • 1926, around 1,500 mineral species were firmly established at that time, the Roebling mineral collection (nowadays at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC) lacked less than 15 of those (Colonel Washington A. Roebling (1837–1926), founding member of the Mineralogical Society of America).
  • Carl Hintze (1851–1916): "Handbuch der Mineralogie" (1916) Leipzig: Veit.
  • Machatschki, Felix (1928). "Zur Frage der Struktur und Konstitution der Feldspate". Centralblatt f. Mineralogie, Geol. u. Paläontol. A: 96–104.  Note: Felix Machatschki worked with Victor Goldschmidt as well as with William L. Bragg for a period of time.
  • Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman (1888–1970), Nobel Prize for Physics laureate (1930).
  • William L. Bragg (1930). "The Structure of Silicates". Nature. 125 (3152): 510–511. doi:10.1038/125510a0. 
  • William L. Bragg (1932). The Structure of Silicates (2 ed.). Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft M.B.H. 
  • Victor Moritz Goldschmidt (1888–1947) founder of crystal chemistry: Goldschmidt classification (1937), Goldschmidt tolerance factor and Goldschmidt's law (1926). He is considered together with Vladimir Vernadsky (1863–1945) to be the founder of modern geochemistry.
  • 1941, foundation of the Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS).
  • Strunz, Hugo (1941). Mineralogische Tabellen (in German) (1 ed.). Leipzig: Akad. Verlagsges. p. 287. 
  • 7 April 1947, International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) was formally admitted to International Council for Science (ICSU) (former International Council of Scientific Unions, ICSU).
  • In 1948–1950, PhD candidate Raymond Castaing (1921–1999), supervised by André Guinier, built the first “microsonde électronique” (electron microprobe) at ONERA.
  • Linus Carl Pauling (1901–1994), Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate (1954).
  • Max Hutchinson Hey (1904–1984); British Museum, London.
  • Mainframe computers were produced from the late 1950s through the 1970s.

    • International Mineralogical Association era (after 1957)

  • 1958, foundation of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA), Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CNMMN). It is affiliated to the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS).
  • Jack Kilby (1923–2005), working for Texas Instruments successfully demonstrates the first working integrated circuit on 12 September 1958. It would make the slide rule obsolete later on.
  • Frondel, Clifford (1962). The System of Mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and Edward Salisbury Dana: Volume 3 – Silica Minerals (7 ed.). John Wiley and Sons Incorporated.  Note: this publication got delayed, as silicate minerals were being better understood.
  • Deer, William Alexander; Howie, Robert Andrew; Zussman, Jack (1962). An Introduction to the Rock-Forming Minerals (1 ed.). Longmans. p. 528.  Note: main work is a series with 11 volumes (as of 2013).
  • 1966, 50 years 'American Mineralogist', a scientific publication.
  • Michael Fleischer's "Alphabetical Index of New Mineral Names, Discredited Minerals, and Changes of Mineralogical Nomenclature, Volumes 1-50 (1916-1965), The American Mineralogist" (1966). "Glossary of Mineral Species" (1971) 1 ed. is based on it.
  • The percursor of Internet (short for Internetworking), the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) is online (1969).
  • 3rd International Molecular Sieve Conference (1973): organisation of the International Zeolite Association (IZA).
  • Povarennykh, A.S. (1972). Crystal Chemical Classification of Minerals. New York, NY: Plenum Press. 
  • 1978, Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Standards (JCPDS) is renamed International Centre for Diffraction Data (ICDD). A lot of compounds have an 'ICDD Card'.
  • 1986, beginning of the Athena database (Pierre Perroud) and it goes online 1994.
  • Anthony, John W.; Bideaux; Bladh; Nichols, eds. (1990–2013). Handbook of Mineralogy. Chantilly, VA: Mineralogical Society of America. 
  • Tim Berners-Lee (1990) working at CERN develops the World Wide Web.
  • 25 December 1993, beginning of the MinDat database.
  • International Mineralogical Association's (IMA) zeolite group and International Zeolite Association's (IZA) zeolite frameworks have similarities (1997).
  • 4 September 1998, incorporation of Google, Inc., an important search tool.
    Note: "lists" (and essays) are more useful with a search function.

    • IMA Master List of Valid Minerals era (after 1999)

  • 10 January 2001, launching of Wikipedia.
  • 2001, Mineralienatlas database goes online.
  • Strunz, Hugo; Nickel, Ernest H. (2001). Strunz Mineralogical Tables (9 ed.). Stuttgart: Schweizerbart. p. 870. ISBN 978-3-510-65188-7. 
  • Bernard Elgey Leake (born 1932), Frank Christopher Hawthorne (born 1946) and Roberta Oberti (born 1952): classification of amphiboles, mainly (1978–2012).
  • Rruff Project, prof. Robert (Bob) Downs, Mineralogy and Crystallography, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, funded in part by Michael Scott.
  • 19th General Meeting of IMA, Kobe, Japan (July 2006).
  • The merging of the Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CNMMN) and the Commission on Classification of Minerals (CCM) resulted in the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC).
  • It was decided to create a website presenting the "official" IMA list of minerals.
  • Robert M. Hazen, summary of the mineral evolution in the geologic time context (2008).
  • Nickel E H, Nichols M C (2007) IMA/CNMNC list of mineral names compiled by Ernest H. Nickel & Monte C. Nichols supplied through the courtesy of Materials Data, Inc.: it updates the Nickel-Strunz 9 ed mineral identifiers, with this publication the mineral database had increased from less than 3,000 to over 4,000 mineral species. Mainly through the work of Ernest Henry Nickel, Monte C. Nichols and Dorian G.W. Smith. The mineral list on the Rruff Project website (rruff.info/ima/) was built up with the IMA/CNMNC list of mineral names (March 2007).
  • Back, Malcolm E.; Mandarino, Joseph A.; Fleischer, Michael (2008). Fleischer’s Glossary of Mineral Species (10 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record Inc. p. 346.  Note: tetrarooseveltite (β-Bi(AsO4), an arsenate mineral) is a member of the scheelite mineral group (a sulfate group).
  • Moëlo et al. (2008) "Sulfosalt systematics: a review", sulfosalt minerals are redefined.
  • Nickel E H, Nichols M C (2009) IMA/CNMNC list of mineral names compiled by Ernest H. Nickel & Monte C. Nichols supplied through the courtesy of Materials Data, Inc.
  • Mineral structural groups are published at rruff.info/ima.
  • Mills, Stuart J.; Hatert, Frédéric; Nickel, Ernest H.; Ferraris, Giovanni (2009). "The standardisation of mineral group hierarchies: application to recent nomenclature proposals" (PDF). European Journal of Mineralology. 21: 1073–1080. doi:10.1127/0935-1221/2009/0021-1994.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) Mineral group (strict sense) is redefined.
  • IMA Master List (November 2012): redefinition of amphibole minerals.
  • Polyoxometalates: keggin anion (ophirite, IMA2013-017) and lindqvist anion (peterandresenite, IMA2012-084; melcherite, IMA2015-018).
  • 2016, 100 years 'American Mineralogist', a scientific publication.
  • IMA Master List (March 2017), great mineral supergroups: alunites (IMA2010 s.p.), apatites (IMA2010 s.p.), pyrochlores (betafite, elsmoreite, microlite, pyrochlore and roméite groups; IMA2010 s.p.), tourmalines (IMA2011 s.p.), amphiboles (IMA2012 s.p.), hydrotalcites (IMA2012 s.p.), garnets (IMA2013 s.p.), hollandites (coronadite and priderite groups; IMA2013 s.p.), epidotes (IMA2016 s.p.), perovskites (IMA2016 s.p.) and seidozerites (titanium disilicates, IMA2016 s.p.).
  • IMA Master List (March 2017), smaller mineral supergroups: sapphirines (aenigmatite, rhönite and sapphirine groups; IMA2008 s.p.), pharmacosiderites (ivanyukite, pharmacoalumite and pharmacosiderite groups; Rumsey et al., 2010), betpakdalites (betpakdalite, mendozavilite and obradovicite; IMA2012 s.p.), gadolinites (datolite, gadolinite and herderite groups; IMA2016-A), dumortierites (dumortierite, holtite and szklaryite groups; IMA2013 s.p.), mayenites (mayenite and wadalite groups; IMA2013-C), chevkinites (chevkinite and perrierite groups; Macdonald et al., 2012), högbomites (högbomite, nigerite and taaffeite groups; IMA2009 s.p.), labuntsovites (IMA2009 s.p.).

    • Beginnings of the 'IMA Master List of Minerals'

  • Strunz, Hugo (1982). Mineralogische Tabellen (in German) (8 ed.). Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest. u. Portig. p. 621. 
  • James A. Ferraiolo (1982) "Systematic Classification of Nonsilicate Minerals", Bulletin 172, American Museum of Natural History (AMNH). Note: the Bulletin 172 was used to update the Dana (7 ed) IDs. The Nickel-Strunz (10 ed) IDs on webmineral.com are partially from his collaboration.
  • Ernest H. Nickel (CSIRO, Australia) early retirement at 60 (1985). He works now on the list of minerals (Minerals Data, Inc. (MDI) of Aleph Enterprises, Livermore CA).
  • John W. Anthony, Richard A. Bideaux, Kenneth W. Bladh, and Monte C. Nichols, Eds., Handbook of Mineralogy (HOM), Mineralogical Society of America (MSA), Chantilly, VA 20151-1110, US.
  • Nickel, E. H.; Nichols, M. C. (1991). Mineral Reference Manual. New York: Van Nostrand, Reinhold. p. 250. 
  • Michael Fleischer (1908–1998).
  • James Dwight Dana, Edward Salisbury Dana, Richard V. Gaines, H. Catherine W. Skinner, Eugene E. Foord, Brian Mason, Abraham Rosenzweig (1997). Dana's new mineralogy: the system of mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and Edward Salisbury Dana (8 ed.). Wiley. p. 1872. ISBN 978-0471193104.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • Strunz, Hugo; Nickel, Ernest H. (2001). Strunz Mineralogical Tables (9 ed.). Stuttgart: Schweizerbart. p. 870. ISBN 978-3-510-65188-7. 
  • Ernest Nickel & Monte Nichols. Mineral Names, Redefinitions & Discreditations Passed by the CNMMN of the IMA (ARD List of Minerals, 2002), updated 2004 (Burke, 2006). Abbreviation: approved, revalidated and discredited minerals (ARD).
  • K. Hugo Strunz (1910–2006).
  • 19th General Meeting of IMA, Kobe, Japan (July 2006): it was decided to create a website presenting the "official" IMA list of minerals.
  • Burke E A J (2006). "A mass discreditation of GQN minerals" (PDF). The Canadian Mineralogist. 44: 1557–1560. doi:10.2113/gscanmin.44.6.1557.  Abbreviation: grandfathered, questionable and published without approval minerals (GQN). Note: questionable minerals that could not be discredited got grandfathered as well.
  • Joseph A. Mandarino (1929–2007).
  • Rruff.info/IMA database is build up based on 'IMA/CNMNC List of Mineral Names' compiled by Ernest H. Nickel & Monte C. Nichols (March 2007), courtesy of Minerals Data, Inc. This list is the result of the GQN list and the ARD list.
  • Buserite's status is 'approved' (IMA1970-024): Burns, R G; Burns, V E; Stockman, H W (1983). "A review of the todorokite-buserite problem: implications to the mineralogy of marine manganese nodules". American Mineralogist. 68: 972–980. 
  • Ernest H. Nickel & Monte C. Nichols (March 2009). IMA/CNMNC List of Mineral Names (PDF).  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) Courtesy of Minerals Data, Inc.; is released.
  • Orthochamosite is discredited: Bayliss, P (1975). "Nomenclature of the trioctahedral chlorites". The Canadian Mineralogist. 13: 178–180. 
  • Ernest (Ernie) H. Nickel (1925–2009).
  • 'The New IMA List of Minerals' is released (2011/ September 2012). Note: the CNMNC revised the 'ARD List of minerals', reducing the number of grandfathered minerals.
  • Monte C. Nichols (1938–2014).
  • James (Jim) A. Ferraiolo (1947–2014).
  • Note: nowadays, there are more or less hundred new minerals every year (the 'IMA Master List of Minerals' as reference made it possible).

    • Mineral names

    Minerals named in honour of the above notable people and organizations.
  • Agricolaite (5.ED.50), anthonyite (3.DA.40), avicennite (4.CB.10), avogadrite (3.CA.10), berzelianite (2.BA.20), berzeliite (8.AC.25), beudantite (8.BL.05), bideauxite (3.DB.25), bobdownsite (8.AC.45), braggite (2.CC.35a), brandtite (8.CG.10), breithauptite (2.CC.05), brewsterite series (9.GE.20), carlhintzeite (3.CB.45), castaingite (discredited 1967: a mixture of cuprian molybdenite and gerhardtite), cronstedtite (9.ED.15), danalite (9.FB.10), davyne (9.FB.05), deerite (9.DH.60), ernienickelite (4.FL.20), ferraioloite (IMA2015-066), fleischerite (7.DF.25), gadolinite (9.AJ.20), grothite (titanite var., 9.AG.15), haidingerite (8.CJ.20), hausmannite (4.BB.10), hazenite (8.CH.40), haüyne (9.FB.10), heyite (identical with calderonite, 8.BG.05), howieite (9.DH.65), lavoisierite (IMA2012-009), laueite (8.DC.30), leakeite amphibole root name (9.DE.05), machatschkiite (8.CJ.35), mandarinoite (4.JH.15), mendeleevite-(Ce) (IMA2009-092), menzerite-(Y) (IMA2009-050), moëloite (2.HC.25), mohsite (crichtonite var., 4.CC.40), obertiite amphibole root name (9.DE.25), paulingite homologous series (9.GC.35), paulscherrerite (4.GA.05), perroudite (2.FC.20c), ramanite homologous series (6.EA.10), rammelsbergite (2.EB.15a), roeblingite (9.CB.05), roselite (8.CG.10), rosenbuschite (9.BE.22), rruffite (8.CG.10), scheelite (7.GA.05), schoenfliesite (4.FC.10), scottyite (IMA2012-027), sorbyite (2.LB.30), stenonite (3.CG.05), strunzite (8.DC.25), theophrastite (4.FE.05), valentinite (4.CB.55), wernerite (intermediate member of the marialite-meionite series), zussmanite (9.EG.35).

    • The System of Mineralogy of James D. Dana

  • Dana, James Dwight (1837). A System of Mineralogy (1 ed.). New Haven. p. 580. 
  • Dana, James Dwight (1844). A System of Mineralogy (2 ed.). New York and London. p. 640. 
  • Dana, James Dwight (1850). A System of Mineralogy (3 ed.). New York and London. p. 711. 
  • Dana, James Dwight (1854). A System of Mineralogy (4 ed.). New York and London. 
  • Note: 2 volumes; Vol. I, pp. 320 and Vol. II, pp. 534. It uses for the first time a chemical classification system (elements, sulfides, oxides, silicates, and so on).
  • Dana, James Dwight; Brush, George Jarvis (1868). A System of Mineralogy: Descriptive mineralogy, comprising the most recent discoveries (5 ed.). New York: J. Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 827. 
  • Dana, James Dwight; Dana, Edward Salisbury (1892). The System of Mineralogy of James D. Dana: Descriptive Mineralogy (6 ed.). New York: J. Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 1134. 
  • James Dwight Dana; Edward Salisbury Dana (1899) First appendix to the sixth edition of Dana's System of mineralogy : Completing the work to 1899, pp. 75.
  • James Dwight Dana; Edward Salisbury Dana; William E Ford (1914) Second appendix to the sixth edition of Dana's System of mineralogy : Completing the work to 1909, pp. 114.
  • William Ebenezer Ford; James Dwight Dana (1915) Third appendix to the sixth edition of Dana's System of mineralogy : Completing the work to 1915, pp. 87.
  • Palache, Charles; Berman, Harry; Frondel, Clifford (1951). The System of Mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and Edward Salisbury Dana (7 ed.). Wiley & Sons.  Note: 3 volumes; Vol. I (1944), pp. 834, Vol. II (1951), pp. 1124, Vol. III (Silica Minerals, Clifford Frondel, 1962), pp. 334.
  • James Dwight Dana, Edward Salisbury Dana, Richard V. Gaines, H. Catherine W. Skinner, Eugene E. Foord, Brian Mason, Abraham Rosenzweig (1997). Dana's new mineralogy: the system of mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and Edward Salisbury Dana (8 ed.). Wiley. p. 1872. ISBN 978-0471193104.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) Note: a more compact edition.

    • Glossary of Mineral Species

  • Fleischer, Michael (1966). "Index of New Mineral Names, Discredited Minerals, and Changes of Mineralogical Nomenclature in Volumes 1-50 of The American Mineralogist in Table 1. Alphabetical Index of New Mineral Names, Discredited Minerals, and Changes of Mineralogical Nomenclature, Volumes 1-50 (1916-1965), The American Mineralogist". American Mineralogist. 51 (8): 1251–1326. 
  • Fleischer, Michael (1971). Glossary of Mineral Species (1 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record. p. 103. 
  • Fleischer, Michael (1975). Glossary of Mineral Species (2 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record. p. 145. 
  • Fleischer, Michael (1980). Glossary of Mineral Species (3 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record. p. 192. 
  • Fleischer, Michael (1983). Glossary of Mineral Species (4 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record. p. 202. 
  • Fleischer, Michael (1987). Glossary of Mineral Species (5 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record. p. 234. 
  • Michael, Fleischer; Mandarino, Joseph A. (1991). Glossary of Mineral Species (6 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record Inc. p. 256. 
  • Michael, Fleischer; Mandarino, Joseph A. (1995). Glossary of Mineral Species (7 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record Inc. p. 280. 
  • Mandarino, Joseph A. (1999). Fleischer’s Glossary of Mineral Species (8 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record Inc. p. 225. 
  • Back, Malcolm E.; Mandarino, Joseph A. (2004). Fleischer’s Glossary of Mineral Species (9 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record Inc. p. 309.  Note: no mineral groups section in this edition.
  • Back, Malcolm E.; Mandarino, Joseph A. (2008). Fleischer’s Glossary of Mineral Species (10 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record Inc. p. 345. 
  • Back, Malcolm E. (2014). Fleischer’s Glossary of Mineral Species (11 ed.). Tucson AZ: Mineralogical Record Inc. p. 434. 

    • Strunz Mineralogical Tables

  • Strunz, Hugo (1941). Mineralogische Tabellen (in German) (1 ed.). Leipzig: Akad. Verlagsges. p. 287. 
  • Strunz, Hugo (1949). Mineralogische Tabellen (in German) (2 ed.). Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest. u. Portig. p. 308. 
  • Strunz, Hugo (1957). Mineralogische Tabellen (in German) (3 ed.). Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest. u. Portig. p. 448. 
  • Strunz, Hugo (1966). Mineralogische Tabellen (in German) (4 ed.). Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest. u. Portig. p. 560. 
  • Strunz, Hugo; Tennyson, Christel (1970). Mineralogische Tabellen (in German) (5 ed.). Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest. u. Portig Akad. Verlagsges. p. 621. 
  • Strunz, Hugo; Tennyson, Christel (1977). Mineralogische Tabellen (in German) (6 ed.). Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest. u. Portig Akad. Verlagsges. p. 621.  Note: corrected edition.
  • Strunz, Hugo; Tennyson, Christel (1978). Mineralogische Tabellen (in German) (7 ed.). Leipzig: Akad. Verlagsges. p. 621.  Note: reprint.
  • Strunz, Hugo (1982). Mineralogische Tabellen (in German) (8 ed.). Leipzig: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Geest. u. Portig. p. 621. 
  • Strunz, Hugo; Nickel, Ernest H. (2001). Strunz Mineralogical Tables (9 ed.). Stuttgart: Schweizerbart. p. 870. ISBN 978-3-510-65188-7. 

    • Rock-Forming Minerals series

  • W.A. Deer, R.A. Howie and J. Zussman (2013). An Introduction to the Rock-Forming Minerals (3 ed.). London: Mineralogical Society. p. 498. ISBN 978-0903056274.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • W.A. Deer, R.A. Howie and J. Zussman (3 December 2001). Orthosilicates. Rock-Forming Minerals. 1A. Geological Society of London. p. 919. ISBN 978-1-897799-88-8.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • W.A. Deer, R.A. Howie and J. Zussman (3 December 2001). Disilicates and Ring Silicates. Rock-Forming Minerals. 1B. Geological Society of London. p. 630. ISBN 978-1-897799-89-5.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • W.A. Deer, R.A. Howie and J. Zussman (3 December 2001). Single-Chain Silicates. Rock-Forming Minerals. 2A. Geological Society of London. p. 680. ISBN 978-1-897799-85-7.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • W.A. Deer, R.A. Howie and J. Zussman (28 August 1997). Double Chain Silicates. Rock-Forming Minerals. 2B. Geological Society of London. p. 784. ISBN 978-1-897799-77-2.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • M.E. Fleet (23 February 2004). Micas. Rock-Forming Minerals. 3A. Geological Society of London. p. 780. ISBN 978-1-86239-142-0.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • W.A. Deer, R.A. Howie and J. Zussman (6 March 2009). Layered Silicates Excluding Micas and Clay Minerals. Rock Forming Minerals. 3B. Geological Society of London. p. 320. ISBN 978-1-86239-259-5.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • M.J. Wilson (31 May 2013). Clay Minerals. Rock Forming Minerals. 3C. Geological Society of London. ISBN 978-1-86239-359-2.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • W.A. Deer, R.A. Howie and J. Zussman (6 June 2001). Framework Silicates - Feldspars. Rock-Forming Minerals. 4A. Geological Society of London. p. 992. ISBN 978-1-86239-081-2.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • W.A. Deer, R.A. Howie, J. Zussman and W.S. Wise (18 May 2004). Framework Silicates - Silica Minerals, Feldspathoids and Zeolites. Rock-Forming Minerals. 4B. Geological Society of London. p. 982. ISBN 978-1-86239-144-4.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • W.A. Deer, R.A. Howie, J. Zussman, J.F.W. Bowles and D.J. Vaughan (16 June 2011). Non-Silicates: Oxides, Hydroxides and Sulphides. Rock-Forming Minerals. 5A. Geological Society of London. p. 320. ISBN 978-1-86239-315-8.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • W.A. Deer, R.A. Howie, J. Zussman and L.L.Y. Chang (1 January 1996). Non-Silicates: Sulphates, Carbonates, Phosphates, Halides. Rock-Forming Minerals. 5B. Geological Society of London. p. 383. ISBN 978-1-897799-90-1.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)

    • Carl Friedrich Rammelsberg series

  • C.F. Rammelsberg (1841). Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie. 1–2. Berlin: C. G. Lüderitz. 
  • Erstes Supplement zu dem Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie (1843), Zweites Supplement zu dem Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie (1845), Drittes Supplement zu dem Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie (1847), Viertes Supplement zu dem Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie (1849) and Fünftes Supplement zu dem Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie (1853).
  • C.F. Rammelsberg. Supplement zu dem Handwörterbuch des chemischen Theils der Mineralogie. 1–4. Berlin: C. G. Lüderitz. 
  • C.F. Rammelsberg (1860). Handbuch der Mineralchemie. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. p. 1038. 
  • C.F. Rammelsberg (1886). Handbuch der Mineralchemie: Ergänzungsheft zur 2en Aufl. 

    • Carl Hintze

  • Carl Hintze (1897–1933). Handbuch der Mineralogie. Berlin and Leipzig.  Note: 6 volumes.
  • Carl Hintze (1958). Handbuch der Mineralogie / Ergänzungsbände I, II, Neue Mineralien und neue Mineralnamen. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • Carl Hintze, Karl F Chudoba (1971). Handbuch der Mineralogie / Gesamtregister für die Bände I(1-4) und II sowie Ergänzungsbände I, II und III. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • Carl Hintze, Karl F Chudoba (1974). Handbuch der Mineralogie: Neue Mineralien und neue Mineralnamen. Suppl. 4. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co. p. 162. ISBN 9783110046366.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • Carl Hintze, Karl F Chudoba (1975). Handbuch der Mineralogie. Erg.-Bd. 4 : Lfg. 2. Neue Mineralien und neue Mineralnamen : (mit Nachträgen, Richtigstellungen und Ergänzungen). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co. p. 373. ISBN 9783110058505.  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • Carl Hintze, Karl F Chudoba (1968 and 2011). Handbuch der Mineralogie : Ergänzungsband III: Neue Mineralien und neue Mineralnamen (mit Nachträgen, Richtigstellungen und Ergänzungen). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co. Note: digital file.

    • Handbook for chemists and physicists (D’Ans Lax)

  • Jean D’Ans and Ellen Lax (1943). Taschenbuch für Chemiker und Physiker (1 ed.).  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) Note: 3 volumes.
  • M. D. Lechner, ed. (1992). Taschenbuch für Chemiker und Physiker: Physikalisch-chemische Daten. 1 (4 ed.). Berlin: Springer. ISBN 3-540-52895-4. 
  • Claudia Synowietz, ed. (1983). Taschenbuch für Chemiker und Physiker: Organische Verbindungen. 2 (4 ed.). Berlin: Springer. ISBN 3-540-12263-X. 
  • Roger Blachnik, ed. (1998). Taschenbuch für Chemiker und Physiker: Elemente, anorganische Verbindungen und Materialien, Minerale. 3 (4 ed.). Berlin: Springer. ISBN 3-540-60035-3. 

    • Max H. Hey

  • Max H. Hey (1955). An Index of Mineral Species & Varieties Arranged Chemically (2 ed.). printed by order of the Trustees of the British Museum (London). p. 728. ISBN 978-0565000974. 
  • Max H. Hey, Peter G. Embrey (1974). An index of mineral species and varieties arranged chemically: with an alphabetical index of accepted names and synonyms. A second appendix to the second edition of 'An index of mineral species and varieties arranged chemically'. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History).  CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
  • Clark, Andrew M. (1993). Hey's mineral index: mineral species, varieties, and synonyms (3 ed.). London; New York: Chapman & Hall. ISBN 9780412399503. 

    • References

    Timeline of the discovery and classification of minerals Wikipedia
    (Text) CC BY-SA


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