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In mathematics, the Cantor function is an example of a function that is continuous, but not absolutely continuous. It is also referred to as the Cantor ternary function, the Lebesgue function, Lebesgue's singular function, the Cantor-Vitali function, the Devil's staircase, the Cantor staircase function, and the Cantor-Lebesgue function. Georg Cantor (1884) introduced the Cantor function and mentioned that Scheeffer pointed out that it was a counterexample to an extension of the fundamental theorem of calculus claimed by Harnack. The Cantor function was discussed and popularized by Scheeffer (1884), Lebesgue (1904) and Vitali (1905).
Contents
Definition
See figure. To formally define the Cantor function c : [0,1] → [0,1], let x be in [0,1] and obtain c(x) by the following steps:
- Express x in base 3.
- If x contains a 1, replace every digit after the first 1 by 0.
- Replace all 2s with 1s.
- Interpret the result as a binary number. The result is c(x).
For example:
Properties
The Cantor function challenges naive intuitions about continuity and measure; though it is continuous everywhere and has zero derivative almost everywhere,
The Cantor function can also be seen as the cumulative probability distribution function of the 1/2-1/2 Bernoulli measure μ supported on the Cantor set:
However, no non-constant part of the Cantor function can be represented as an integral of a probability density function; integrating any putative probability density function that is not almost everywhere zero over any interval will give positive probability to some interval to which this distribution assigns probability zero. In particular, as Vitali (1905) pointed out, the function is not the integral of its derivative even though the derivative exists almost everywhere.
The Cantor function is the standard example of a singular function.
The Cantor function is non-decreasing, and so in particular its graph defines a rectifiable curve. Scheeffer (1884) showed that the arc length of its graph is 2.
Iterative construction
Below we define a sequence {ƒn} of functions on the unit interval that converges to the Cantor function.
Let ƒ0(x) = x.
Then, for every integer n ≥ 0, the next function ƒn+1(x) will be defined in terms of ƒn(x) as follows:
Let ƒn+1(x) = 0.5 × ƒn(3x), when 0 ≤ x ≤ 1/3 ;
Let ƒn+1(x) = 0.5, when 1/3 ≤ x ≤ 2/3 ;
Let ƒn+1(x) = 0.5 + 0.5 × ƒn(3 x − 2), when 2/3 ≤ x ≤ 1.
The three definitions are compatible at the end-points 1/3 and 2/3, because ƒn(0) = 0 and ƒn(1) = 1 for every n, by induction. One may check that ƒn converges pointwise to the Cantor function defined above. Furthermore, the convergence is uniform. Indeed, separating into three cases, according to the definition of ƒn+1, one sees that
If ƒ denotes the limit function, it follows that, for every n ≥ 0,
Also the choice of starting function does not really matter, provided ƒ0(0) = 0, ƒ0(1) = 1 and ƒ0 is bounded.
Fractal volume
The Cantor function is closely related to the Cantor set. The Cantor set C can be defined as the set of those numbers in the interval [0, 1] that do not contain the digit 1 in their base-3 (triadic) expansion, except if the 1 is followed by zeros only (in which case the tail 1000
Generalizations
Let
be the dyadic (binary) expansion of the real number 0 ≤ y ≤ 1 in terms of binary digits bk = {0,1}. Then consider the function
For z = 1/3, the inverse of the function x = 2 C1/3(y) is the Cantor function. That is, y = y(x) is the Cantor function. In general, for any z < 1/2, Cz(y) looks like the Cantor function turned on its side, with the width of the steps getting wider as z approaches zero.
As mentioned above, the Cantor function is also the cumulative distribution function of a measure on the Cantor set. Different Cantor functions, or Devil's Staircases, can be obtained by considering different atom-less probability measures supported on the Cantor set or other fractals. While the Cantor function has derivative 0 almost everywhere, current research focusses on the question of the size of the set of points where the upper right derivative is distinct from the lower right derivative, causing the derivative to not exist. This analysis of differentiability is usually given in terms of fractal dimension, with the Hausdorff dimension the most popular choice. This line of research was started in the 90s by Darst, who showed that the Hausdorff dimension of the set of non-differentiability of the Cantor function is the square of its support,
Hermann Minkowski's question mark function loosely resembles the Cantor function visually, appearing as a "smoothed out" form of the latter; it can be constructed by passing from a continued fraction expansion to a binary expansion, just as the Cantor function can be constructed by passing from a ternary expansion to a binary expansion. The question mark function has the interesting property of having vanishing derivatives at all rational numbers.