Messianic Judaism

Pre-19th century

Efforts by Jewish Christians to proselytize Jews began in the first century, when Paul the Apostle preached at the synagogues in each city that he visited. However, non-biblical accounts of missions to the Jews do not mention converted Jews playing any leading role in proselytization. Notable converts from Judaism who attempted to convert other Jews are more visible in historical sources beginning around the 13th century, when Jewish convert Pablo Christiani attempted to convert other Jews. This activity, however, typically lacked any independent Jewish-Christian congregations, and was often imposed through force by organized Christian churches.

In the 15th and 16th centuries, Jewish Christians occupying professorships at the European universities began to provide translations of Hebrew texts. Scholars such as Paul Nuñez Coronel, Alfonso de Zamora, Alfonso de Alcalá, Domenico Gerosolimitano, and Giovanni Battista Jona were actively engaged in spreading Jewish scholarship.

19th and early 20th centuries

In the 19th century, some groups attempted to create congregations and societies of Jewish converts to Christianity, though most of these early organizations were short-lived. Early formal organizations run by converted Jews include: the Anglican London Society for promoting Christianity among the Jews of Joseph Frey (1809), which published the first Yiddish New Testament in 1821; the "Beni Abraham" association, established by Frey in 1813 with a group of 41 Jewish Christians who started meeting at Jews' Chapel, London for prayers Friday night and Sunday morning; and the London Hebrew Christian Alliance of Great Britain founded by Dr. Carl Schwartz in 1866.

The September 1813 meeting of Frey's "Beni Abraham" congregation at the rented "Jews' Chapel" in Spitalfields is sometimes pointed to as the birth of the semi-autonomous Hebrew Christian movement within Anglican and other established churches in Britain, though the non-Anglican minister of the chapel at Spitalfields evicted Frey and his congregation only three years later, and Frey severed his connections with the Society. A new location was found and the Episcopal Jew's Chapel Abrahamic Society registered in 1835.

In Eastern Europe, Joseph Rabinowitz established a Hebrew Christian mission and congregation called "Israelites of the New Covenant" in Kishinev, Ukraine in 1884. Rabinowitz was supported from overseas by the Christian Hebraist Franz Delitzsch, translator of the first modern Hebrew translation of the New Testament. In 1865, Rabinowitz created a sample order of worship for Sabbath morning service based on a mixture of Jewish and Christian elements. Mark John Levy pressed the Church of England to allow members to embrace Jewish customs.

In the United States, a congregation of Jewish converts to Christianity was established in New York City in 1885. In the 1890s, immigrant Jewish converts to Christianity worshiped at the Methodist "Hope of Israel" mission on New York’s Lower East Side while retaining some Jewish rites and customs. In 1895, the 9th edition of Hope of Israel's Our Hope magazine carried the subtitle "A Monthly Devoted to the Study of Prophecy and to Messianic Judaism", the first use of the term "Messianic Judaism". Hope of Israel was controversial; other missionary groups accused its members of being Judaizers, and one of the two editors of Our Hope magazine, Arno C. Gaebelein, eventually repudiated his views and, as a result, was able to become a leader in the mainstream Christian evangelical movement. In 1894, Christian missionary and Baptist minister Leopold Cohn, a convert from Judaism, founded the Brownsville Mission to the Jews in the Brownsville section of Brooklyn, New York as a Christian mission to Jews. After several changes in name, structure and focus, the organization is now called Chosen People Ministries and has operations and staff in the U.S. and 11 other nations.

Missions to the Jews saw a period of growth between the 1920s and the 1960s. In the 1940s and '50s, missionaries in Israel, including the Southern Baptists, adopted the term meshichyim (משיחיים "Messianics") to counter negative connotations of the word notsrim (נוצרים "Christians", from "Nazarenes"); the term was used to designate all Jews who had converted to Protestant evangelical Christianity.

The Modern-Day Messianic Judaism movement, 1960s onwards

The modern day Messianic Jewish movement is considered by many to have begun in the United States in the 1960s and maybe even more specifically in 1967. Mark Kinzer writes: “The cultural ferment of the 1960s threw Hebrew Christians in America and their institutions into the same turmoil that characterized the rest of American society. Three factors played an especially important part in turning their world upside down: a social movement (i.e., the youth counterculture), a cultural trend (i.e., ethnic self-assertion and pride), and a political-military event (i.e., the Six-Day War).” The Six-Day war (The Arab-Israeli war of June 5 to June 10, 1967) brought Jerusalem back under Jewish control. This was seen as a fulfillment of Jesus’ prophecy: “Jerusalem will be trampled on by the Gentiles until the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled.”(Luke 21:24 TLV)

The social and cultural movements can be seen in the Jesus movement which had its “beginning on the West Coast of the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s and spreading primarily throughout North America, Europe, and Central America, before subsiding by the late 1980s. Members of the movement were called Jesus people, or Jesus freaks. Its predecessor, the Charismatic Movement, had already been in full swing for about a decade. It involved mainline Protestants and Roman Catholics who testified to supernatural experiences similar to those recorded in the Acts of the Apostles, especially speaking in tongues. Both these movements were calling the church back to what they called primitive Christianity and recovery of the gifts of the Spirit.” “According to author Peter Hocken, ‘The new thrust that turned Hebrew Christians into Messianic Jews was distinctly charismatic.’ This reflected the influence of the charismatic Jesus movement at the same period.”

The social, cultural and political environment in the United States created this very unique climate in which the modern Messianic movement was birthed. It was born among the young Jews and gentiles who had experienced a great awakening. This was most evident in the youthful surge experienced in the Hebrew Christian Alliance (HCAA) that resulted in the formation of the Young Hebrew Christian Alliance. Joe and Debbie Finkelstein along with Manny Brotman were the primary leaders of this movement. At the 1971 HCAA conference “the number of young people equaled the number of older members.” As such this movement was seen as a fulfillment of the Ezekiel 37 Dry Bones prophecy where verses 1 through 8 apply to the establishment of Israel as a nation when the bones come together and verses 8 through 14 when life is given to the bones.

Transformation to a Jewish Identity and Culture

Prior to this time Jewish believers, had in most cases, assimilated into gentile Christianity, losing their Jewish identity and not passing on their Jewish heritage to their children. Now there seemed to be a greater desire and urgency among the young believers to maintain not only their individual Jewish identity but to celebrate their Jewish traditions and culture with their families and Jewish friends. Understanding Jesus within his historical Jewish context was of great importance as well as seeing Jesus within modern day Judaism especially in the observance of the Shabbat and the celebration of the festivals. This conflict of identity as a Hebrew-Christian and passion for their Jewish identity was summed up by Paul Liberman where he writes about the founding of Beth Messiah Congregation.

Almost as soon as Beth Messiah began to hold meetings on May 18, 1973, I realized I would be required to “explain” our purpose to the outside Jewish community. I needed to be able to honestly profess that we were not an appendage, subsidiary, affiliate, or offshoot of any Christian (Gentile) denomination or ministry. We were a Jewish congregation and always would be. We absolutely were not a “church.” For this reason, if we identified as, “Beth Messiah, a Messianic Synagogue” immediately followed by, “affiliated with the Hebrew Christian Alliance of America,” it would seem an inherent contradiction in our stated goal. How could you have a “Christian synagogue?” … If this fledgling thing –Beth Messiah—was to have a future, it couldn’t be under the banner—Hebrew Christian Alliance?”

This idea of a Jewish identity and more specifically a Messianic Jewish identity was the main purpose of the effort to change the name of the Hebrew Christian Alliance of America (HCAA) to Messianic Jewish Alliance of America (MJAA). Dan Juster comments on this by saying that “Hebrew Christianity, at times, saw Jewishness as merely an ethnic identity, whereas Messianic Judaism saw its Jewish life and identity as a continued call of God.” David Rausch further explains that “(t)he name change, however, signified far more than a semantical expression—it represented an evolution in the thought processes and religious and philosophical outlook toward a more fervent expression of Jewish identity.”

Foundational Leaders

While there are many individuals who made an impact on the movement there are several key figures. These are Manny Brotman, Martin and Yohanna Chernoff, Ray Gannon, and Dan Juster.

Manny Brotman

Brotman, Manny (1952-1999), was a talented individual who excelled in everything he undertook. He was “quarterback of the championship high school football team and pitcher for the winning city baseball team.” Besides sports, Manny succeeded in business eventually becoming a corporate president and later Chairman of the Board of Fourth Television Network. He was married to Audrey Yvonne Kitchen for 28 years until her passing and then married Sandra Frances Sheskin. Manny was a graduate of the Jewish Studies program at Moody Bible Institute in Chicago. As a young Spirit-filled Messianic Jew he was a forerunner to the events of 1967 which were so instrumental in establishing the modern day Messianic movement. He founded the Messianic Jewish Movement International (MJMI) in 1963. Many young Jews in the Washington, D.C. area were affected by his enthusiastic sharing of his beliefs. His efforts lead to the establishment of the youth branch of the Hebrew Christian Alliance (HCAA), the Young Hebrew Christian Alliance (YHCA) in 1967. Yohanna Chernoff writes that the establishment of the YHCA, “proved to be a very timely innovation, since Jewish youth were being saved in visible numbers and were seeking fellowship with others like themselves.” Manny served as its first President and Executive Director and organized its first conference at Messiah College in Grantham, Pennsylvania in 1970. It was renamed the Young Messianic Jewish Alliance (YMJA) in 1975. During this time Manny “changed his base of operations from Chicago to Florida and began producing materials to foster an emphasis on Jewish heritage and culture. The name of his Shalom International was changed to Messianic Jewish Movement International (MJMI), and he began a ‘fellowship’ in Miami that was 90% Jewish in background.” Manny was the first pastor of Beth Messiah Congregation in Rockville, Maryland (1974-75), founded by Paul Liberman, Sid Roth and Sandra Sheskin. This was the first Messianic Jewish congregation to own its own facility and it “was the planting agency for another ten congregations.” David Rausch wrote in 1982 that Manny was “an inspiring and well-equipped speaker” while Ruth Fleischer notes that “Brotman had perhaps the clearest vision of the Messianic congregation. He established the synagogue and, like Laurence Duff-Forbes, referred to himself as a ‘rabbi’ (literally translated ‘teacher’).”

Manny, often called by many the “Father of the Modern-Day Messianic Jewish Movement,” was instrumental in the development of the foundational structure of the movement through materials, terminology, organizations and congregations. His efforts defined the very identity of the modern Messianic Jew and modern Messianic Jewish life. As a founding father figure Manny produced “the first pictorial Messianic Catalog in the modern movement” and he “pioneered and popularized the use of Messianic terminology, Messianic evangelism materials and training, planting Messianic congregations and Messianic Jewish television and radio.”

Martin and Yohanna Chernoff

Chernoff, Martin (1920-1985) and Yohanna (1930-2014, Joanna Joyner) Martin Chernoff, the son of Russian Jewish immigrants to Canada, become a believer in Jesus as Messiah in 1940 under the ministry of Morris Kaminskey, a faithful friend and mentor who had founded a congregation in Toronto under Anglican auspices. Kaminskey was a brother-in-law to David Bronstein who had founded the Peniel Community Center and the First Hebrew Christian Church in Chicago (Presbyterian). Yohanna and Martin met and married in 1949. After ministry in Atlanta, Georgia (1949-1953), they moved to Cincinnati, Ohio in 1954 which was the hub of Reformed Judaism and established a community that later was to become Beth Messiah. Martin and Yohanna became committed to the efforts of the Hebrew Christian Alliance of America (HCAA) to maintain Jewish identity while attending the HCAA conference in Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1965. In 1969 Martin was voted to the HCAA Executive Board and elected as president in 1971. This was another step in their transformation from a Hebrew Christian identity to a Messianic Jewish identity. Yohanna reports that in 1970 Martin received a “vision from the Lord: two electrifying, simple words stretched across the sky in the form of a banner, bringing into focus and confirming what we had been sensing over the years: MESSIANIC JUDAISM.” 1970 was also the year their sons, David and Joel become “on fire for God” and the Chernoff’s began congregation Beth Messiah in their home. In attendance at the 1971 biennial meeting of the HCAA in Oak Park, Michigan were twenty-five “Jewish Jesus freaks” from Philadelphia known as “Fink’s Zoo.” In 1974 Martin was invited to Philadelphia to organize “Fink’s Zoo” into a congregation which became Beth Yeshua when established in 1975. In that same year the Hebrew Christian Alliance of America (HCAA) voted overwhelmingly to change its name to the Messianic Jewish Alliance of America (MJAA). In 1985 David Chernoff assumed the role of Messianic Rabbi of Beth Yeshua upon the death of his father.

Dr. Raymond Gannon

After graduating from Bethany University in 1970 Ray Gannon began a Jewish ministry in Los Angeles, California area. In 1973 Gannon, along with Phillip Goble established one of the oldest Messianic Jewish synagogues, Beth Emmanuel Fellowship, under the auspices of the Assemblies of God in Encino California. Beth Emmanuel was renamed Ahavat Zion Synagogue (AZS) in 1978. Gannon opened new Jewish outreaches in the San Francisco Bay Area from 1975 to 1979, and “later pioneered and pastored Messianic congregations in Long Island (1980) and Queens (1983) as well as directing Beth Emanuel Fellowship in Northeast Philadelphia from 1983 to 1988.”

“Before moving to Jerusalem to co-pastor King of Kings Assembly in 1989, Dr. Gannon taught missions and Jewish studies at Central Bible College, Valley Forge Christian College, and the Christ for the Nations Biblical Institute (New York campus). Upon arrival in Jerusalem, Ray founded the Israel College of the Bible which provided the first successful, on-going, and fully-accredited Bible College for Israelis. Soon he opened special language departments for Jewish immigrants, both Russian and Ethiopian.”

In 2007, with the vision of Jonathan Bernis, and in conjunction with Jewish Voice Ministries International (JVMI) and with the Messianic Jewish Bible Institute (MJBI), Gannon, along with Dan Juster, launched the Messianic Jewish Studies Program (MJSP) at The King’s University (TKU), founded by Dr. Jack Hayford. “In 2013, the joint JVMI/MJBI leadership of the TKU Messianic Jewish Studies Program (MJSP) was moved to the primary oversight of the MJBI. Through the continued generosity of JVMI, the MJSP at TKU has become a quality undergraduate and graduate Messianic Jewish Studies option for serious students. Under the leadership of Dr. Ray Gannon, (Director of the TKU MJSP and V.P. for Academic Affairs for the MJBI), the program has greatly developed and grown. The program also saw the first five D.Min. graduates in Messianic Leadership.”

In addition to teaching and developing Messianic Jewish educational programs Gannon worked for some seven years as a translator and team translator as part of a four-man theological editing team for the Tree of Live Bible (TLV) produced by the Messianic Jewish Bible Society (MJBS).

Dr. Daniel Juster

In his book, Messianic Judaism, published in 1982, David Rausch called Dan Juster a “key figure in the Messianic Jewish congregational movement> In the years since, that assessment remains true but could be expanded and applied to not just the congregational movement but to all aspects of the broader Messianic Jewish movement. As a scholar and theologian Juster has influenced the movement with over 30 Messianic Jewish books along with the foundational and highly regarded Jewish Roots: Understanding Your Jewish Faith which is now in its fourth edition. Juster is a strong advocate for the Messianic movement to have an appreciation for the heritage of the Christian church even as their primary cultural expression is Jewish.

Dan Juster currently serves as the Director of Tikkun International, a Messianic Jewish organization headquartered in Israel. Juster began his ministerial work as pastor of the First Hebrew Christian Church (Presbyterian) in 1972 which had been founded by David Bronstein in 1934. The First Hebrew Christian Church was renamed Adat Hatikvah in 1975 under Juster’s leadership as “Dan caught a vision of expressing his faith in Yeshua in a more Jewish way and shifted to worship on Shabbat, keeping the Jewish holidays, and a positive attitude toward Torah.”

After Manny Brotman resigned as the spiritual leader of Beth Messiah Congregation (greater Washington D.C. area) the congregation chose Juster to be their leader after hearing him speak at the Messiah ’77 conference. He served in that capacity till 2000. David Rausch writes:

A kind and gentle individual, Juster was a teacher, a pastor and a mediator. He was exactly what the congregation needed at this juncture. He set up a committee structure within the congregation to deal with strife and dissension, and he fit well in the mild charismatic atmosphere of Beth Messiah. … Juster is highly respected, and his opinions and insight carry considerable weight. His qualities as a peacemaker have currently extended to his being a mediator between Hebrew Christianity and Messianic Judaism. And, while he believes firmly in the tenets of Messianic Judaism, Juster emphasizes the historical importance of Hebrew Christianity and the debt Messianic Judaism owes to it.

The desire of many young Jews to maintain their Jewish identity and to maintain a Jewish lifestyle (following the Jewish calendar, observing Shabbat, etc.) lead to the formation of Messianic Jewish synagogues. In seeing this need Juster worked for the formation of a body to help in the “initiation, establishment, and growth of Messianic Jewish congregations worldwide.” Thus in June 1979 nineteen congregations in North America met at Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania and formed the Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations (UMJC) with Dan Juster as its first president.

In 1981 Juster started Messiah Bible Institute (MBI) which, along with efforts by Jonathan Bernis, become Messianic Jewish Bible Institute (MJBI) in 1995.

Foundational Messianic Jewish Congregations

The shift from a Hebrew Christian identity to a Messianic Jewish identity was a key factor in the establishment of Messianic Jewish congregations. Juster writes:

In 1975, the Hebrew Christian Alliance of America changed its name to the Messianic Jewish Alliance, reflecting the growing Jewish identity of Jewish followers of Yeshua. It is at this point that a major question comes into focus: What is the distinction between Messianic Judaism and Hebrew Christianity, which was the traditional designation for Jewish believers in Yeshua? Hebrew Christians, traditionally, have not emphasized the planting of Jewish congregations, but Messianic Jews have. Hebrew Christianity, at times, saw Jewishness as merely an ethnic identity, whereas Messianic Judaism saw its Jewish life and identity as the continued call of God.”

Fleischer reports that “in 1974 there were five Messianic congregations in existence in Philadelphia, Washington, D.C. Cincinnati, Chicago and in Los Angeles.” Currently there are some 300 Messianic Jewish congregations in the United States with the estimated number of Messianic Jews ranging from 30,000 to 600,000.”

First Hebrew Christian Church, Chicago, Illinois

The Peniel Community Center established and directed by David Bronstein also gave birth to the First Hebrew Christian Church which later became Adat HaTikvah Messianic Synagogue. The need for the church arose out of the inability for some Jews to adapt and dropped out with others drifting away altogether from their faith. As Dan Juster writes:

The most influential work was the Peniel Center (est. 1921) and the First Hebrew Christian Church (est. 1934), which became Adat Hatikvah (1975). Rev. David Bronstein was the founder of both these works. Although by my theology they did not achieve an authentic Jewish expression of faith, progress toward this ideal was made. Accusations of re-erecting the “wall of partition” were made against Bronstein then, as today against Messianic Judaism. Although Christian hymns and Sunday worship provided a church atmosphere, Bronstein’s own teaching, the symbolism and design of the worship hall and the remembrance of feasts by preaching and demonstration were closer to a Messianic Jewish style than anything else in America.”

As Messianic Jewish community identity become more of a core issue to the movement Hebrew Christian congregations made a transformational shift as noted by Russ Resnik:

In the mid-70s, Dan Juster, who was to become a key Messianic Jewish figure was leading the First Hebrew Christian Church, founded in Chicago in 1934 by the Presbyterians. Dan caught a vision of expressing his faith in Yeshua in a more Jewish way and shifted to worship on Shabbat, keeping the Jewish holidays, and a positive attitude toward Torah. One of his worship leaders was Joel Chernoff, who went on to pioneer Messianic Jewish music as part of the group Lamb. Joel had come to the congregation with the revolutionary idea of employing Jewish style worship songs in place of the old hymns. The idea took off. First Hebrew Christian Church was renamed Adat Hatikvah to reflect its new Jewish self-image.

David Bronstein, a graduate of Moody Bible Institute and McCormick Theological Seminary, won many of his family members to his faith including his brother-in-law Morris Kaminskey under whose ministry Martin Chernoff was saved. Ed Brotsky, another who came to faith under Kaminskey, started the first Messianic Jewish congregation in Philadelphia.”

Beth Messiah Congregation, Rockville, Maryland

Beth Messiah was founded by Paul Liberman, Sid Roth, and Sandra Sheskin in May 18, 1973 with 15 people present. Liberman writes: “We began to meet, and we didn’t know what the heck we were doing. For music, we brought Christian records and someone else brought a record player. We played the records, and we sang along with the words. ‘Put your hand in the hand of the Man who stilled the waters.’” Even though they didn’t know exactly what they were doing they knew that they wanted “a place where new and prospective Jewish believers could come and feel comfortable ... that they will not have to give up their Jewish heritage, identity, and culture” and for “our own families to have something of a Jewish style and culture in which to raise our children.”

This new congregation was first lead by Manny Brotman during which the “community grew significantly and purchased its first synagogue building.” Brotman was succeeded by Dan Juster in 1978 who lead the congregation until 2000..” During this time it “birthed a number of ministries both locally and globally. Beth Messiah was also one of the original congregations that formed the Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations (UMJC).”

The Beth Messiah website states that it “has been a pioneering community in Messianic Jewish music and education. Musicians Paul Wilbur, René Bloch, and Marc Chopinsky of Israel's Hope met and led worship at Beth Messiah. BMC was also the birthplace of Ets Chaiyim School, one of the first Messianic Jewish day schools. While the school closed in 2009 after nearly three decades, the legacy of Ets Chaiyim continues to bear fruit through the hundreds of students who attended.”

Beth Messiah, Cincinnati, Ohio

In 1970 the Chernoff’s moved their Sunday morning worship services from their home to the Community Room of the Standard Building and Loan Company, in the suburb of Pleasant Ridge. Then in October of 1970 the Chernoff’s resigned from the Christian association they were part of and incorporated their community as Congregation Beth Messiah. This was also the year Martin had his third vision of a large banner in the sky with the words, “Messianic Judaism.” And thirdly it was also the year their sons, David and Joel become “on fire for God.”

Joe Finkelstein called the Chernoffs in late 1974 about going to Philadelphia to organize their group of young people called “Fink’s Zoo” into a congregation. The Chernoffs left for Philadelphia in 1975 turning Beth Messiah over to Rachmiel Frydland. Michael Wolf became the congregational leader in 1977. Many Messianic leaders were raised up in Cincinnati: Jeff Adler, Bruce Adler, Robert Cohen, Mark Dayan, Elliot and Joyce Klayman, and Dr. Robert Winder along with many others.

Beth Yeshua, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

In 1975 Martin and Yohanna Chernoff, moved to Philadelphia to establish a congregation from the Finkelstein’s youth group which was affectionately known as “Fink’s Zoo.” Thus Beth Yeshua (House of Salvation) was established as a self-supporting, independent community. Later in 1986 it would align itself with the International Associations of Messianic Congregations and Synagogues (IAMCS). The congregation moved several times from the Chernoff’s home to the Marriott Hotel, then the Holiday Inn and eventually to their current location at 7501 Haverford in Philadelphia.

David Chernoff assumed the leadership role in 1985 when his father Martin died at the age of 65. Messianic leaders who were once a part of Beth Yeshua include: Joseph and Debbie Finkelstein, Jeff and Diane Lowenthal, Michael and Rachel Wolf, Jeff and Janet Forman, Steve and Pat Weiler, Bruce and Debbie Cohen, David and Helene Rosenberg, and Jan and Marlene Rosenberg.

Ahavat Zion Synagogue, Santa Monica, California

Ahavat Zion started as Temple Beth Emmanuel in Encino, CA in 1973. This Assemblies of God effort was a “significant move toward Messianic Judaism.” In 1974 it was one of the largest and fastest growing congregations in the world. In 1970 Ray and Kassiani Gannon, after graduating from Bethany University, moved to Los Angeles and began a Jewish ministry in the bustling Jewish Fairfax district. The small group they started soon outgrew their apartment so they “founded a small chavurah called the Beth Emmanuel Fellowship at a private home in Beverly Hills.” The congregation continued to grow under the leadership of Ray Gannon and his associate, Phillip Goble. In 1976 the congregation hired Hebert Goldberg as its next spiritual leader and then in 1978 changed its name to Ahavat Zion Synagogue (AZS). Barry Budoff served as its next leader from 1980 until 1991 at which time Stuart Dauermann, a “well-known Messianic Jewish pioneer and musician” became the fourth spiritual leader. “Rabbi Dr. Stuart Dauermann and his wife, Naomi, served as the spiritual leaders of AZS till 2011 when he stepped aside to teach, write, and travel full-time.” In 2016 the congregation moved to Santa Monica, California under its current leader Rabbi Joshua Brumbach who succeeded Dauermann in 2011.

Messianic Organizations - MJAA, UMJC, IAMCS, Tikkun International

Currently there are over 300 Messianic Jewish congregations in the United States with maybe half of their attendance being Gentiles. Most of these congregations belong to the International Association of Messianic Congregations and Synagogues (IAMCS), an arm of the Messianic Jewish Alliance of America (MJAA), or to the Union of Messianic Congregations (UMJC) or to Tikkun International.

The Messianic Jewish Alliance of America (MJAA) began in 1915 as the Hebrew Christian Alliance of America (HCAA). In 1975 as more young Jews become believers in Jesus as their Messiah they felt the need to maintain their Jewish identity and voted to change the name. The MJAA was and still is an organization of individual Jewish members. As a result of this renewed interest in maintaining a Jewish identity these young Jews began to gather together to maintain a Jewish lifestyle (following the Jewish calendar, observing Shabbat, etc.) which lead to the formation of Messianic Jewish synagogues. The next step in this progression was the formation of a body to help in the “initiation, establishment, and growth of Messianic Jewish congregations worldwide.” Thus in June 1979 nineteen congregations in North America met at Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania and formed the Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations (UMJC) with Dan Juster as its first president. In 2005 they revised their statement on Messianic Judaism:

The Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations (UMJC) envisions Messianic Judaism as a movement of Jewish congregations and groups committed to Yeshua the Messiah that embrace the covenantal responsibility of Jewish life and identity rooted in Torah, expressed in tradition, and renewed and applied in the context of the New Covenant.”

In 1986 the MJAA formed a congregational branch the International Alliance of Messianic Congregations and Synagogues (IAMCS).

“Tikkun International is a Messianic Jewish umbrella organization for an apostolic network of leaders, congregations and ministries in covenantal relationship for mutual accountability, support and equipping to extend the Kingdom of God in America, Israel, and throughout the world.”

Conclusion

Yaakov Ariel concludes in his essay “Judaism and Christianity Unite!: The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism”:

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Messianic Judaism is a growing movement. It is no longer in its infancy, but retains youthful vigor and enthusiasm. It is characterized by considerable optimism, resulting from its relative success and growth, and a strong sense of mission. They sense that they are taking part in a groundbreaking historical experiment---amalgamating the Christian faith with the Jewish heritage, thus healing old wounds…In the early years of the twenty-first century, Messianic Judaism is a thriving community. It has become a solid movement in the American religious scene.

Even though, for the sake of brevity, only a few individuals, organizations and events have been mentioned, Russ Resnik wrote in Introducing Messianic Judaism and the UMJC that Messianic Judaism, “…was springing up at a grass-roots level all over the world, as the Holy Spirit moved upon Jewish believers.” It is a movement not begun by only one or only a few individuals but one that had spontaneously spring up all over the world. It is a unique movement with no similar parallels in world history. The Messianic Jewish Movement is a people, called by God, and dedicating themselves to the proclamation of the good news that Yeshua the Messiah is the redeemer of the Jewish people as well as for all the nations.  

Messianic Seal of Jerusalem

The Messianic Seal of Jerusalem is a symbol for Messianic Judaism and Christians. The symbol is seen as a depiction of the Menorah, an ancient Jewish symbol, together with the Ichthys, an ancient depictive representation of Christian faith and the community of Jesus followers, creating a Star of David at the intersection. The Messianic Seal is not the only symbol of Messianic Judaism, which has other graphical representations such as the Menorah and Star of David, the cross in the Star of David, among others.

There is an ongoing dispute as to whether or not the seal dates from the 1st century AD, or if it is a 20th-century invention.

Theology and core doctrines

As with many religious faiths, the exact tenets held vary from congregation to congregation. In general, essential doctrines of Messianic Judaism include views on:

Certain additional doctrines are more open to differences in interpretation, including those on sin and atonement and on faith and works.

The Trinity

Many Messianic Jews affirm the doctrine of the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit as three representations of the same divinity.

1. God the Father—Messianic Jews believe in God and that he is all-powerful, omnipresent, eternally existent outside of creation, and infinitely significant and benevolent. Some Messianic Jews affirm both the Shema and the Trinity, understanding the phrase "the Lord is One" to be referring to "a differentiated but singular deity", and "eternally existent in plural oneness". Some Messianic believers profess only a strict view of monotheism, rejecting Trinitarian doctrine, but this is not common.
2. God the Son—Most Messianic Jews consider Jesus to be the Messiah and divine as God the Son, in line with mainstream Christianity. This belief is supported through links between Hebrew Bible prophecies and what Messianic Jews (and most mainstream Christians) perceive as the prophecies' fulfillment in the New Testament. Many also consider Jesus to be their "chief teacher and rabbi" whose life should be copied. Many English-speaking Messianic Jews refer to Jesus by the Hebrew name "Yeshua" or Yehoshua, rather than by the English name "Jesus." Certain congregations outside mainstream Messianic Jewish belief do not ascribe divinity to Jesus, with some considering him a man, fathered by the Holy Spirit, who became the Messiah.
3. God the Holy Spirit—According to some Messianic Jews, the Spirit is introduced in the Old Testament as co-creator (Genesis 1:2), is the inspirer of prophets (II Sam. 23:1–3), and is the spirit of Truth described in the New Testament (John 14:17, 26). According to the teachings of Messianic Judaism, the Holy Spirit was the dove at baptism (Matt 3:16) and the giver of tongues in Acts 2.

Jesus

The place of Jesus in Messianic Judaism is usually clearly defined. His Jewishness and that of all the original disciples is affirmed. Messianic Judaism asserts that Jesus is the Word of God become manifest (John 1:1–14), a belief that is identical with normative Christian doctrine regarding the nature and identity of the Son of God. Furthermore, Messianic Judaism generally asserts that the Messiah has a dual aspect as revealed in Scripture. Messianic Jews believe Jesus' first role as Messiah was to rescue the world from spiritual bondage, and that he will return to rescue the world from physical oppression and establish his unending Kingdom—again, a belief that is identical to the normative Christian view of the Messiah. George Berkley writes that the Messianic Jews of the MJAA "worship not just God but Jesus" whom they call Yeshua.

The Bible

Both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament (sometimes called the "Brit Chadasha") are usually considered to be the established and divinely inspired Biblical scriptures by Messianic Jews. With a few exceptions, Messianic believers generally consider the written Torah, the five books of Moses, to remain in force as a continuing covenant, revised by Jesus and the Apostles in the New Testament, that is to be observed both morally and ritually. Jesus did not annul the Torah, but its interpretation is revised through the Apostolic scriptures.

Jewish oral tradition

There is no unanimity among Messianic congregations on the issue of the Talmud and the Oral Torah. There are congregations which believe that adherence to the Oral Law, as encompassed by the Talmud, is against Messianic beliefs. Similarly, there are congregations which deny the authority of the Pharisees, believing that they were superseded, and their teachings contradicted, by Messianism. There are adherents which call rabbinic commentaries such as the Mishnah and the Talmud "dangerous", and state that followers of rabbinic and halakhic explanations and commentaries are not believers in Jesus as the Messiah. Other congregations are selective in their applications of Talmudic law, and may believe that the rabbinic commentaries such as the Mishnah and the Talmud, while historically informative and useful in understanding tradition, are not normative and may not be followed where they differ from the New Testament. Still others encourage a serious observance of Jewish halakha.

Messianic Bible translations

Messianic Jews generally consider the entire Christian Bible to be sacred scripture. Theologian David H. Stern in his "Jewish New Testament Commentary" argues that the writings and teachings of Paul the Apostle are fully congruent with Messianic Judaism, and that the New Testament is to be taken by Messianic Jews as the inspired Word of God.

Messianic publications

There are a number of Messianic commentaries on various books of the Bible, both Tanakh and New Testament texts, such as Matthew, Acts, Romans, Galatians, and Hebrews. David H. Stern has released a one-volume Jewish New Testament Commentary, providing explanatory notes from a Messianic Jewish point of view. Other noted New Testament commentary authors include: Joseph Shulam, who has written commentaries on Acts, Romans, and Galatians; Arnold Fruchtenbaum of Ariel Ministries, who has written commentaries on the Epistles, Judges & Ruth, and Genesis, and 7 systematic doctrinal studies; Tim Hegg of TorahResource, who has written commentaries on Romans, Galatians, Hebrews, and is presently examining Matthew; Daniel Thomas Lancaster, who has written extensively for the First Fruits of Zion Torah Club series; Stuart Sacks, author of Hebrews Through a Hebrews' Eyes; and J. K. McKee of TNN Online who has written several volumes under the byline "for the Practical Messianic" (James, Hebrews, Philippians, Galatians, and surveys of both the Tanakh and the Apostolic Scriptures).

Attitudes toward Paul

Messianic Jews understand (as suggested by some recent scholars) that Paul the Apostle (who is often referred to as Sha'ul, his Hebrew name) remained a Jewish Pharisee even as a believer until his death (see Paul the Apostle and Judaism). This is based on Acts 23:6, detailing events after Paul's acceptance of Jesus as Messiah. "But when Paul perceived that the one part were Sadducees, and the other Pharisees, he cried out in the council, Men [and] brethren, I am a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee: of the hope and resurrection of the dead I am called in question."

Messianic believers cite the cutting off of Paul's hair at Cenchrea because of a vow he had taken (Acts 18:18), references in passing to him observing the Jewish holidays, and his consistent good standing with his Rabbinic master Gamaliel, to show that he was wholly in continued observance of the laws and traditions of Judaism. They maintain that Paul never set out to polarize the gospel between faith and righteous works, but that one is necessary to maintain the other. The New Perspective on Paul is important in Messianic Judaism.

Sin and atonement

Some Messianic believers define sin as transgression of the Torah (Law/Instruction) of God and include the concept of original sin. Some adherents atone for their sins through prayer and repentance—that is, acknowledgment of the wrongdoing and seeking forgiveness for their sins (especially on Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement). Disagreeing with these rites and practices, other Messianics hold to a belief that all sin (whether committed yet or not) is already atoned for because of Jesus's death and resurrection.

Evangelism and attitudes toward Jews and Israel

Messianic Jews believe God's people have a responsibility to spread his name and fame to all nations (Psalms 96:3, Ezekiel 3:18–19) It is believed that the Children of Israel were, remain, and will continue to be the chosen people of the God, and are central to his plans for existence. Most Messianic believers, whether Jewish or non-Jewish, can be said to oppose supersessionism (popularly referred to as replacement theology), the view that the Church has replaced Israel in the mind and plans of God.

There exist among Messianic believers a number of perspectives regarding who exactly makes up God's chosen people. Most commonly, Israel is seen as distinct from the church; Messianic Jews, being a part of both Israel and the church, are seen as the necessary link between the 'gentile' People of God and the commonwealth of God's people of Israel. The two-house view, and the one law/grafted-in view are held by many identifying as Messianic, although some Messianic groups do not espouse these theologies.

According to the Messianic group Jerusalem Council, "the people of Israel are members of the covenant HaShem made with Avraham, Yitzhak, and Ya'akov. Covenant membership is extended to converts to Judaism from the nations, as well as to the descendants of covenant members. Israel is a nation of nations and their descendants, or more specifically a people group called out from other people groups to be a people separated unto HaShem for his purposes. HaShem's promise of covenantal blessings and curses as described in the Torah are unique to Am Yisrael (People of Israel), and to no other nation or people group. The bible describes an Israelite as one descended from Ya'akov ben Yitzhak ben Avraham, or one who has been converted or adopted into that group by either human or spiritual means."

According to certain branches of Messianic Judaism, Jews are individuals who have one or more Jewish parents, or who have undergone halakhic conversion to Judaism. As in Reform Judaism, those who have Jewish fathers but gentile mothers are considered Jewish only if the individual claims Jewish identity. The statement of the Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council on Jewish identity is often disputed among Messianic believers who either don't find it necessary or discourage halakhic conversion, in accordance with their interpretation of Romans 2:29 (that a "Jew" is not one who is one "outwardly" but is one who is a Jew in his heart). They also believe that salvation is received by accepting Jesus into one's heart and confessing that he is Lord.

Messianic believers from other nations are also considered to be part of the People of God. Depending on their status within various Messianic Jewish groups, such as the Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations, an allowance for formal conversion is made based on their understanding that Messianic converts are not automatically considered Jewish. The reasoning for this variance is as follows: While Titus may have been the norm in the epistles, a Gentile not converted to Judaism, Paul nevertheless made an exception for Timothy, whom he circumcised and brought under the Covenant, probably because though Timothy's father was Greek, his mother was Jewish. According to the statement of the Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council regarding Conversion, converts to Judaism do not in any way have a higher status within Messianic Judaism than the Messianic believers who are considered by the UMJC to still be gentiles who are attached to their communities.

One Law theology

One Law theology teaches that anyone who is a part of Israel is obligated to observe the Covenant and its provisions as outlined in the Torah. Dan Juster of Tikkun, and Russ Resnik of the UMJC, have argued against the One Law movement's insistence on Gentiles being required to observe the entirety of Torah in the same way as Jews. Tim Hegg responded to their article defending what he believes to be the biblical teaching of "One Law" theology and its implications concerning the obligations of Torah obedience by new Messianic believers from the nations.

Two House theology

Proponents of Two House theology espouse their belief that the phrase "House of Judah" in scripture refers to Jews, while "the House of Israel" refers to the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, or Ephraim. Where scripture states the House of Israel and Judah will again be "one stick" (Ezekiel 37:15–23), it is believed to be referring to the End Times, immediately prior to the Second Coming, when many of those descended from Israel will come back to Israel. Advocates of this theology postulate that the reason so many "gentiles" are converting to Messianic Judaism is that the vast majority of them are truly Israelites. Like One Law groups, the Two House movement has many superficial similarities to Messianic Judaism, such as their belief in the ongoing validity of the Mosaic Covenant. While much of the Two House teaching is based on interpretations of Biblical prophecy, the biggest disagreements are due to inability to identify the genealogy of the Lost Tribes. Organizations such as the Messianic Jewish Alliance of America and Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations have explicitly opposed the Two House teaching.

Supersessionism

Historically, Christianity has taught supersessionism (replacement theology), which implies or outright states that Christianity has superseded Judaism, and that the Mosaic Covenant of the Hebrew Bible has been superseded by the New Covenant of Jesus, wherein salvation is brought about by the grace of God, and not by obedience to the Torah. This is generally complemented with the concept of God having transferred the status of "God's people" from the Jews to the Christian Church. Messianic Jews, in varying degrees, challenge both thoughts, and instead believing that although Israel has rejected Jesus, it has not forfeited its status as God's chosen people (Matthew 5:17). Often cited is Romans 11:29: "for God's gifts and his call are irrevocable". The core of supersessionism, in which the Mosaic Covenant is canceled, is less agreed upon. Though the mitzvot may or may not be seen as necessary, most are still followed, especially the keeping of Shabbat and other holy days.

Eschatology

All Messianic Jews hold to certain eschatological beliefs such as the End of Days, the Second Coming of Jesus as the conquering Messiah, the re-gathering of Israel, a rebuilt Third Temple, a resurrection of the dead, and many believe in the Millennial Sabbath, although some are Amillenialist.

Some Messianic Jews believe that all of the Jewish holidays, and indeed the entire Torah, intrinsically hint at the Messiah, and thus no study of the End Times is complete without understanding the major Jewish Festivals in their larger prophetic context. To certain believers, the feasts of Pesach and Shavuot were fulfilled in Jesus's first coming, and Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, and Sukkot will be at his second. Some also believe in a literal 7000-year period for the human history of the world, with a Millennial Messianic kingdom prior to a final judgment.

Torah observance

There is a variety of practice within Messianic Judaism regarding the strictness of Torah observance. Generally, "Torah observant" congregations observe Jewish prayers, biblical feasts, and Sabbath. While most traditional Christians deny that the ritual laws and specific civil laws of the Pentateuch apply to gentiles, certain passages regarding Torah observance in the New Testament are cited by some Messianic believers as proof that Torah was not abolished for Jews. They point out that in Acts 21, Jewish believers in Jerusalem are described as "zealous for the Law".

Sabbath and holiday observances

Some Messianic Jews observe Shabbat on Saturdays. Worship services are generally held on Friday evenings (Erev Shabbat) or Saturday mornings. According to the Southern Baptist Messianic Fellowship (SBMF), services are held on Saturday to "open the doors to Jewish people who also wish to keep the Sabbath". The liturgy used is similar to that of a Jewish siddur with some important differences including the omission of "salvation by works" as the Messianic belief is salvation through Jesus. According to the SBMF, the main purpose in using a liturgy similar to a Jewish siddur is to bring others to Jesus. Other branches of the movement have attempted to "eliminate the elements of Christian worship [such as frequent communion] that cannot be directly linked to their Jewish roots". Almost all such congregations in Israel observe Jewish holidays, which they understand to have their fulfillment in Jesus."

The Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council recommends the observance of Jewish holidays. Most larger Messianic Jewish congregations follow Jewish custom in celebrating the three biblical feasts (Pesach, Shavuot, and Sukkot), as well as Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah.

Dietary laws

The observance of the kashrut dietary laws is a subject of continued debate among Messianic Jews. Some Messianic believers keep kosher purely for the purposes of evangelism to Jewish people. Most avoid pork and shellfish, but there is disagreement on more strict adherence to kosher dietary laws.

Conversion to Messianic Judaism

Messianic perspectives on "Who is a Jew?" vary. The Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council, (West Haven, Connecticut, 2006) a global Messianic body, acknowledges a Jew as one born to a Jewish mother, or who has converted to Judaism. Copying from the Reform stream of Judaism, the Council also recognizes as a Jew one who was born to a Jewish father (but not a Jewish mother) on the condition that the family of the child (or the individual as an adult) has undertaken public and formal acts of identification of the individual with the Jewish faith and people.

Large numbers of those calling themselves Messianic Jews are not of Jewish descent, but join the movement anyway as they "enjoy the Messianic Jewish style of worship". The MJAA views conversion for Gentiles an unbiblical practice, but accepts gentiles into their congregations, and other Messianic organizations hold to similar views.

Baptism

Messianic Jews practice baptism, calling it a mikveh ("cistern", from Leviticus 11) rather than the term hattvila ("baptism" הטבילה in the Hebrew New Testament).

Circumcision

Some within the Ephraimite movement seek to convert themselves for identification with Israel, but most Messianic governing bodies acknowledge the presence of gentiles in the congregations, and do not see a need for them to convert to worship in the Messianic style and understanding. When conversion is sincerely desired by a gentile Messianic believer, Messianic Jewish halachic standards (including circumcision) are imposed to maintain integrity among the world Messianic Jewish community.

Use of Hebrew names and vocabulary in English

The movement generally avoids common Christian terms, such as Christ and cross (tsalav—צלב), and prefers to maximise the use of Hebrew terms. Messianic Jews take a similar approach as the Sacred Name Movement for the name "Yeshua".

Music

Messianic Jewish hymnologies are not merely Christian evangelical ones. Many of the hymns relate to Israel's role in history, convey a messianic hope, and refer to Jesus as the Savior of Israel. In addition, small changes differentiate them from the usual contemporary evangelical hymns, such as the use of the name Yeshua instead of Jesus. Messianic hymnals also include a large number of Israeli songs.

The movement also has several recording artists who consider their music to be Messianic in message, such as Joel Chernoff of the duo Lamb, Ted Pearce and Chuck King. Many of these artists have been influenced by Jewish music and often incorporate Hebrew phrases into their lyrics.

Reception among mainstream Christianity

In the United States, the emergence of the Messianic Jewish movement created some stresses with other Jewish-Christian and missionary organization. In 1975, the Fellowship of Christian Testimonies to the Jews condemned several aspects of the Messianic Jewish movement.

In Israel, the linguistic distinction between Messianic Jews and mainstream Christians is less clear, and the name "Messianic" (Meshiyhiy משיחי) is commonly used by churches anyway, in lieu of Notsri (Hebrew: נוצרי), the secular government administrative term for "Christian". The Israel Trust of the Anglican Church, based at Christ Church, Jerusalem, an organization that is ecumenical in outlook and operates an interfaith school in Jerusalem, gives some social support to Messianic Jews in Israel.

Reception among Jews

As in traditional Jewish objections to Christian theology, opponents of Messianic Judaism hold that Christian proof texts, such as prophecies in the Hebrew Bible purported to refer the Messiah's suffering and death, have been taken out of context and misinterpreted. Jewish theology rejects the idea that the Messiah, or any human being, is a divinity. Belief in the Trinity is considered idolatrous by most rabbinic authorities, though there is a minority view that it constitutes shituf (literally, "partnership"), an association of other individuals with the God of Israel. While shituf is, according to some opinions, permitted for gentiles, it is considered idolatrous for Jews. Further, Judaism does not view the role of the Messiah to be the salvation of the world from its sins, an integral teaching of Christianity.

Jewish opponents of Messianic Judaism often focus their criticism on the movement's radical ideological separation from traditional Jewish beliefs, stating that the acceptance of Jesus as Messiah creates an insuperable divide between the traditional messianic expectations of Judaism, and Christianity's theological claims. They state that while Judaism is a messianic religion, its messiah is not Jesus, and thus the term is misleading. All denominations of Judaism, as well as national Jewish organizations, reject Messianic Judaism as a form of Judaism. Regarding this divide, Reconstructionist Rabbi Carol Harris-Shapiro observed:

To embrace the radioactive core of goyishness—Jesus—violates the final taboo of Jewishness[.] ... Belief in Jesus as Messiah is not simply a heretical belief, as it may have been in the first century; it has become the equivalent to an act of ethno-cultural suicide.

B'nai Brith Canada considers messianic activities as antisemitic incidents. Rabbi Tovia Singer, founder of the anti-missionary organization Outreach Judaism, noted of a Messianic rabbi in Toledo: "He's not running a Jewish synagogue ... It's a church designed to appear as if it were a synagogue and I'm there to expose him. What these irresponsible extremist Christians do is a form of consumer fraud. They blur the distinctions between Judaism and Christianity in order to lure Jewish people who would otherwise resist a straightforward message."

Response of Israeli government

Messianic Jews are considered eligible for the State of Israel's Law of Return only if they can also claim Jewish descent. An assistant to one of the two lawyers involved with an April 2008 Supreme Court of Israel case explained to the Jerusalem Post that Messianic Jews who are not Jewish according to Jewish rabbinic law, but who had sufficient Jewish descent to qualify under the Law of Return, could claim automatic new immigrant status and citizenship despite being Messianic. The state of Israel grants Aliyah (right of return) and citizenship to Jews, and to those with Jewish parents or grandparents who are not considered Jews according to halakha, e.g. people who have a Jewish father but a non-Jewish mother. The old law had excluded any "person who has been a Jew and has voluntarily changed his religion", and an Israeli Supreme Court decision in 1989 had ruled that Messianic Judaism constituted another religion. However, on April 16, 2008, the Supreme Court of Israel ruled in a case brought by a number of Messianic Jews with Jewish fathers and grandfathers. Their applications for Aliyah had been rejected on the grounds that they were Messianic Jews. The argument was made by the applicants that they had never been Jews according to halakha, and were not therefore excluded by the conversion clause. This argument was upheld in the ruling.

The International Religious Freedom Report 2008, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor in the U.S. states that discrimination against Messianic Jews in Israel is increasing. Some acts of violence have also occurred such as incident on March 20, 2008, a bomb concealed as a Purim gift basket was delivered to the house of a prominent Messianic Jewish family in Ariel, in the West Bank, which severely wounded the son. The bombing was eventually traced to Yaakov "Jack" Teitel, a serial killer who immigrated to Israel from the United States, and who was found to be responsible for several bombings, murders and attempted murders in Israel.

This antagonism has led to harassment and some violence, especially in Israel, where there is a large and militant Orthodox community. Several Orthodox organizations, including Yad L'Achim, are dedicated to rooting out missionary activity in Israel, including the Messianic Jewish congregations. One tactic is to plaster posters asking Israelis to boycott shops where Messianic Jews are owners or employees; another is to report Messianic Jews to the Interior ministry, which is charged with enforcing an Israeli law forbidding proselytizing. In another incident, the mayor of Or Yehuda, a suburb of Tel Aviv, held a public book-burning of literature passed out to Ethiopian immigrants. He later apologized for the action.

Response of U.S. governments

The U.S. Navy made a decision that Messianic Jewish chaplains must wear as their insignia the Christian cross, and not the tablets of the law, the insignia of Jewish chaplains. According to Yeshiva World News, a website covering stories of Jewish interest, the Navy Uniform Board commanded that Michael Hiles, a candidate for chaplaincy, wear the Christian insignia. Hiles resigned from the program, rather than wear the cross. Rabbi Eric Tokajer, a spokesman for the Messianic Jewish movement, responded that "This decision essentially bars Messianic Jews from serving as chaplains within the U.S. Navy because it would require them to wear an insignia inconsistent with their faith and belief system."

A Birmingham, Alabama police employee's religious discrimination case was settled in her favor after she filed suit over having to work on the Jewish Sabbath.