Isan language

History

The Tai languages originated in what is currently known as central and southern China in an area stretching from Yunnan to Guangdong as well as Hainan and adjacent regions of northern Vietnam. Tai speakers arrived in South-East Asia around 1000 CE, displacing or absorbing earlier peoples and setting up mueang (city-states) on the peripheries of the Indianised kingdoms of the Mon and Khmer people. The Tai kingdoms of the Mekong Valley became tributaries of the Lan Xang mandala (Isan: ล้านซ้าง, RSTG: lan chang, Lao: ລ້ານຊ້າງ, BGCN: lan xang, /lȃːn sȃːŋ/) from 1354-1707. Influences on the Isan language include Sanskrit and Pali terms for Indian cultural, religious, scientific and literary terms as well as the adoption of the Pallava alphabet as well as Mon-Khmer influences to the vocabulary.

Lan Xang split into the Kingdom of Vientiane, the Kingdom of Luang Phrabang and the Kingdom of Champasak, but these became vassals of the Thai state. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, several deportations of Lao peoples from the densely populated western bank of the Mekong to the hinterlands of Isan were undertaken by the Thai armies, especially after the revolt of Anouvong in 1828, when Vientiane was looted and depopulated. This weakened the Lao kingdoms as the population was shifted to the kingdoms in Isan and small pockets of western and north-central Thailand, under greater Thai control.

Development of Isan

Isan speakers became politically separated from other Lao speakers after the Franco-Siamese War of 1893 would lead Siam to cede all of the territories east of the Mekong to France, which subsequently established the French Protectorate of Laos. In 1904, Sainyabuli and Champasak were ceded to France, leading to the current borders between Thailand and Laos today. A 25 km demilitarised zone west of the river banks allowed for easy crossing, and Isan remained largely neglected for sometime. Rebellions against Siamese and French incursions into the region included the Holy Man's Rebellion (1901-1904), led by self-proclaimed holy men. The Lao people also joined in the rebellion, but was crushed by Thai troops in Isan. At first, Isan was administered under Lao local rulers subject to the Siamese Court under the monthon system of administration, but this was abolished in 1933, bringing Isan under direct control from Bangkok.

Thaification

Heavy-handed nationalist policies were adopted in 1933 with the end of the absolute monarchy in Thailand. Many were instituted during the premiership of Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram (1938-1944). Although Lao languages were banned from education in 1871, a new public education and new schools were built throughout Isan, and only Thai was to be used by government and media. References to Lao people were erased and propagation of Thai nationalism was instilled in the populace. The language was renamed "Northeastern Thai".

Discrimination against the Isan language and its speakers was commonplace, especially when large numbers of Isan people began arriving in Bangkok in the latter half of the 20th century, permanently or for seasonal work. Although this blatant discrimination is rarer these days, most of these nationalistic Thaification policies remain in effect.

Post-war period to present

Resistance to Thai hegemony continued. During the course of World War II and afterwards, the Free Thai Movement bases in Isan made links with the Lao Issara movement. After the implementation of Thaification policies, many prominent Isan politicians were assassinated, and some Isan people moved to Laos. The Communist Party of Thailand led insurrections during the 1960s and 1980s, supported by the communist Pathet Lao and some factions of the Isan populace. Integration continued, as highways and other infrastructure were built to link Isan with the rest of Thailand. Due to population pressures and unreliable monsoons of the region, Isan people began migrating to Bangkok for employment. Isan speakers began to shift to the Thai language, and the language itself is absorbing larger amounts of Thai vocabulary. Universities such as Mahasarakham and Khon Kaen are now offering classes on Isan language, culture, and literature. Attitudes towards regional cultures have relaxed and the language continues to be spoken, but Thai influences in grammar and vocabulary continue to increase.

Classification

Isan belongs to the Tai branch of the Tai–Kadai languages. Within Tai, Isan is a Southwestern Tai language, linking it with most Tai languages of Southeast Asia and immediately adjacent regions of southern China. Within this grouping, Isan is part of the Lao-Phuthai group, which includes the speech of the Lao, Phu Thai, and Nyaw. The national and official language of Thailand, by contrast, is in the closely related Chiang Saeng languages. However, within Thailand, Isan is considered a regional dialect of Thai. Outside of Thailand, the language is classified as either its own Lao-Phuthai language due to social and historical reasons or generally as just a distinct subset of the Lao language, mostly by linguists and often Isan speakers themselves. Thai, Isan, and Lao are all mutually intelligible to some degree, but Isan is closer to standard Lao than to standard Thai in ordinary speech. Thai, Isan and Lao share most of their basic vocabulary as well as a large corpus of shared Sanskrit, Pali, and Khmer loanwords in academic and high-brow language.

Endonyms

Lao speakers in Thailand refer to themselves as Lao people and as speakers of the Lao language, phasa lao, "Lao language", (ภาษาลาว, /pʰáː săː láːu/, cf. Lao: ພາສາລາວ), but this is generally only used in Isan by speakers speaking amongst themselves. Speakers have also gradually come to accept the term phasa (thai) isan, "Isan language", (ภาษา[ไทย]อีสาน, /pʰáː săː [tʰáj] iː săːn/, cf. Lao: ພາສາ[ໄທ]ອີສານ, phasa [thai] isane). The name is of Sanskrit derivation, and means "northeast", in this case, northeast of central Thailand. The name was originally the name of Isanapura, a capital of the Chenla kingdom that once also controlled the region. The term has long been used to refer to the people and language of the region and is used by Isan people to distance themselves from the Lao people of Laos. It also seems to be displacing the term Lao even among speakers. The use of Thai has a double meaning, as it refers to both the people of Thailand, the Thai people, but in Isan and Lao, the meaning also just refers to people in general, so phasa thai isan can signify both the Isan language of "Thailand", as well as the language of the Isan "people". The term phasa thai lao (ภาษาไทยลาว, /pʰáː săː tʰáj láːu/, cf. Lao: ພາສາໄທລາວ), "Lao language in Thailand" or "language of the Lao people" is also used.

Exonyms

In Thailand, the Isan language is officially classified as a dialect of the Thai language. It is generally referred to as "Northeastern Thai", or phasa thai tawan ok chieng neua (ภาษาไทยตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือ , /pʰaː săː tʰaj tàʔ wan ɔ`ːk tɕʰǐaŋ nɯːa/), or as the "Thai language of the Isan region", or phasa thai thin isan (ภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสาน, /pʰaː săː tʰaj tʰìn ʔiː săːn/. Use of pasa [thai] isan is also common (Thai: /pʰaː săː [tʰaj] ʔiː săːn/). Most of the other linguistic minorities in the region generally refer to the people and language as Lao. Within Laos, the Isan variety is referred to as phasa lao, phasa [thai] isan, phasa thai lao or as "the Lao language of Isan", phasa lao isan /pʰaː săː láːu ʔiː săːn/, phasa lao isane). In most other languages, the language is known either by variations of "northeastern Thai" or "Isan".

Geographical distribution

Isan is spoken in the 20 provinces that make up Northeastern Thailand, an area approximately the size of England and Wales combined. It is also a native language in large portions of Uttaradit and Phitsanulok, which are generally referred to as Northern Thailand, as well as the more northerly provinces of what is considered Eastern Thailand. Speakers were historically separated from direct Thai influence by a series of mountain ranges, such as the Phetchabun and Dong Phaya Yen mountains to the west, the Sankhamphaeng mountains to the south-west, and the Dongrak in the south, separating the Isan and Northern Khmer speakers from Khmer. To the east and north, the Mekong River generally is considered the 'dividing line' between Isan and Lao. Isan speakers and people of Lao descent make up the overwhelming majority of the region. The southern third of Isan is occupied by Isan speakers, but also includes large linguistic minorities such as those of the Northern Khmer, Kuy, and speakers of Thai Khorat, a transitional dialect spoken in the mixed Thai, Khmer, and Lao settlements of Nakhon Ratchasima. Pockets of other Mon-Khmer languages, such as Aheu language, Nyah Kur, Bru, Nyeu, and others, as well as tribal Tai languages such Saek, Tai Dam, and the more closely related Nyaw and Phuthai languages are spoken in small pockets in the region. Recent immigrations of Central Thai, Vietnamese, and Chinese speakers can also be found in the region. This is in contrast to the situation in Laos, where Lao speakers make up only a little more than half of the population and are concentrated along the Mekong River and other low-land riparian areas, whereas Mon-Khmer and Hmong-Mien languages predominate in the upland areas.

Legal status

Lao only enjoys official status in Laos. In Thailand, the local Lao dialects are officially classed as a dialect of the Thai language, and it is absent in most public and official domains. However, Thai has failed to supplant Lao as the mother tongue for the majority of Isan households. Lao features of the language have been stabilised by the shared history and mythology, morlam folk music still sung in Lao, and a steady flow of Lao immigrants, day-labourers, traders, and growing cross-border trade.

Language Status

The Lao (Isan) language in Thailand is classified by Ethnologue as a "de facto language of provincial identity" which is defined as a language that "is the language of identity for citizens of the province, but this is not mandated by law. Neither is it developed enough or known enough to function as the language of government business." It continues to be an important regional language for the ethnic Lao and other minorities that live beside them, but it does not have any official status in Thailand. Although the population of Lao speakers is much smaller in Laos, the language there enjoys official status, and it is the primary language of government, business, education, and inter-ethnic communication. Even with close proximity to Laos, Isan speakers must master Thai and very few Isan people can read the Lao script due to lack of exposure.

Written language usage and vitality

American linguist Joshua Fishman developed the Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS) to categorise the various stages of language death. The expanded GIDS (EGIDS) is still used to explain the status of a language on the continuum of language death. The written language for Isan—both the secular Tai Noy script and the religious Tua Tham script—are currently at Stage IX which is described as a "language [that] serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency." Today, only a handful of monks in charge of the ancient temple libraries in Isan, some local professors, and a few experts are able to read and write the language.

Spoken language usage and vitality

The spoken language is currently at Stage VIA, or "vigorous", on the EGIDS scale, which is defined by Ethnologue as a language that is used for "face-to-face communication by all generations and the situation is sustainable". According to data from 1983, 88% of Isan households were predominantly Isan speaking, with 11% using both Thai and Isan at home, and only 1% using exclusively Thai. Although this sounds promising for the continued future of the Isan language, there are many signs indicating that the language could reach Stage VIB, or "threatened", which is defined as a "language used for face-to-face communication within all generations, but it is losing users". As a strong command of Thai is necessary for advancement in most government, academic, and professional realms, and in order to work in areas like Bangkok where Isan is not the local language. The negative perception of the language, even amongst native speakers, often causes speakers to limit use of the language unless they are in the company of other Isan speakers. Parents may view the Isan language as a detriment to the betterment of their children, who must be able to speak central Thai proficiently to advance in academia or other career paths besides agriculture. Although there are large numbers of Isan speakers, the language is at risk from Thai relexification. There is also a generational gap, with older speakers using more normative Lao features, whereas the youth are using a very "Thaified" version of Isan or switching to Thai generally. Many academics and Isan speakers are worried that the language is beginning to decline unless it can be promoted beyond its status as a de facto regional language and its written language revived.

Continued survival

The Lao folk music molam (หมอลำ, /mɔ̆ː lám/, cf. Lao: ໝໍລຳ/ຫມໍລຳ or lam lao (/lám láːo/, cf. Lao: ລຳລາວ) has gained in popularity in Thailand, with many Isan singing artists featured during off-peak hours on Thai national television. Crown Princess Sirindhorn was the patron of the 2003 "Thai Youth Mo Lam Competition" and Isan-language variants of the Central Thai luk thung (ลูกทุ่ง, /lȗːk tʰúŋ/, cf. Lao: ລູກທົ່ງ, /lȗːk tʰoŋ/, louk thông) music are accepted in national youth competitions. Within Isan, many students participate in mo lam clubs where they learn the music. Universities are also now offering classes about Isan language, culture, former alphabets, and literature. The Isan people are also exposed to a steady trickle of Laotian immigrants, seasonal immigrants, students as daily visitors, merchants, traders, and fishermen. Isan is also connected with Laos by three bridges, which link the cities of Nong Khai-Viantiane (also by rail), Mukdahan-Savannakhét, and Nakhon Phanom-Thakhèk along the Thai-Lao border, respectively. The language will likely continue to have Thai relexification and gradual language shift as possible threats to its existence.

Dialects

Although as a whole, the Isan dialects are grouped separately from Lao dialects in Laos by influences from the Thai language, dialectal isoglosses mirror the population movements from Lao regions. These regional varieties vary in tone quality and distribution and a small number of lexical items, but all are mutually intelligible. Up to fourteen regional variations can be found within Isan, but they can be grouped into five principal dialect areas:

Vientiane Lao Dialect

The dialect of the capital of Vientiane, now shifting due to the movement of peoples from other regions of Laos, is the prestige dialect of Laos and is also the dialect, with a few minor differences, as that of the city of Nongkhai and other areas of Isan settled by the Tai Wieng (ไทเวียง, /tʰáj víaŋ/, cf. Tai Noy/Lao: ໄທວຽງ), or "Vientiane people" on the Thai side of the border. Tai Wieng also refers to small groups found in a few pockets of western portions of Central Thailand where people from Vientiane were forcibly settled and are reported to speak a very similar dialect.

Northern Lao (Luang Prabang) dialect

The dialect spoken in Luang Prabang was the dialect of the royal capital and the Lao Royal Family. Although the dialects of Northern Thai are classified as Chiang Saen languages more akin to Central Thai, the dialects of are very similar in intonation and vocabulary, and in some ways more closely related with each other than with either Thai or the other Lao dialects. The tones are similar to those used in northern Isan provinces such as Loei, Udon Thani, and other regions settled by the Tai peoples of Luang Prabang. Unlike other dialects, with six or seven tones, Luang Prabang only uses five.

Northeastern Lao Dialect (Tai Phuan)

Northeastern Lao is better known as Tai Phuan (RTSG)/Tai Phouane (BGN/PCGN) and is mainly associated with the Phuan, who are a distinct Lao people of Xiengkhouang and portions of Thailand such as Sakon Nakhon and Udon Thani. Phuan speakers are also found in a few small pockets in central Thailand where there ancestors were forcibly settled to provide labour for increased rice production and defend the capital in case of invasion. Tai Phuan is generally considered a dialect of Lao, but it is classified as a Chiang-Saen language, in the same group as Northern and Central Thai.

Central Lao

The central Lao dialect groupings predominate in the Lao provinces of Savannakhét and Khammouane, and the Thai province of Mukdahan and other regions settled by speakers from these regions.

Southern Lao

Southern Lao is the primary dialect of Champassak, most of the southern portions of Laos, portions of Thailand once under its control, such as Ubon Rachathani, and much of southern Isan, as well as small pockets in Steung Treng (Chieng Taen) Province in Cambodia.

Western Lao

Western Lao does not occur in Laos, but can be found in Kalasin, Maha Sarakham, and Roi Et Provinces.

Tai Noy alphabet

The Isan language was previously written in the ancient Lao alphabet, known as Tai Noy (Isan: ไทน้อย, /tʰáj nɔ̑ːj/, cf. Lao: ໄທນ້ອຍ/Archaic ໄທນ້ຽ) or Tua Lao (Isan: ตัวลาว, /tuaː láːo/, cf. Lao: ຕົວລາວ). The script was adapted from ancient Thai, which itself was adapted from ancient Khmer, which in turn was adapted from the Pallava alphabet of South India, which is ultimately derived from the Brahmi script of India. The letter forms of the modern-day Lao alphabet are mostly unchanged, but orthographic conventions, especially in spelling of words, has been standardised and modified by various reforms of the Lao alphabet in Laos. Education in the script was taught by monks at the temples, who used to run schools for children, and because men were encouraged to join the monastery at some point in their youth. The script was used for secular literature, such as monuments, display, record-keeping, or to compose songs, poetry, folk tales, and religious matter aimed at the people.

The alphabet was banned in Thailand in 1871 (2414 B.E.), when the government banned all languages but standard Thai in the classroom. The use of the script most likely continued up until the period during World War II, when the Siamese abolished the semi-authonomous Monthon administrative and began to build public schools in the area. Isan today is an unwritten language, but it is often written in the Thai alphabet, such as in the lyrics of karaoke videos from Isan. The Lao language in Laos continues to be written in a modern adaptation of Tai Noy as its official script, and is romanised according to a French-based BGN/PCGN schemes as recommended by the Lao Commission Nationale de Toponymie.

Thai alphabet

Isan remains a generally unwritten language, although the Thai script is used to write the Isan language. Evidence of this can be seen in karaoke videos of morlam and lukthung artists from Isan, informal communication, and academic studies of the Isan language in Thailand. Cognate words are spelled according to Thai spelling, even though consonant clusters found in Thai are absent in spoken Lao. Most indigenous Tai vocabulary has similar spelling in Thai and Lao, but where Isan vocabulary differs, the spelling is generally similar to Lao. Since the tones of Isan and Thai differ, sometimes the rarer tone marks—here shown over Thai letter "ก": "ก๋" and "ก๊" are employed to represent different tones. Distinctive features include the substitution of /h/ (ฮ) for Lao words that are pronounced and written as /r/ (ร) in Thai and /s/ (ซ) for words that are pronounced and written as /tɕʰ/ (ช) in Thai. The Thai alphabet, however, cannot transcribe the unique phonology of Isan, such as the different tone patterns, the sounds /ɲ/ and /v/, nor the different vowel distributions of cognate vowels. The Thai alphabet is romanised according to the Royal Thai General System of Transcription (RTGS) method, based on Thai phonology.

Comparison of Thai and Lao scripts for Isan

The Thai and Lao alphabets both derive from earlier Tai scripts that were developed from earlier Khmer scripts. Although very similar to each other, the Lao alphabet does not have the special consonants used to write Sanskrit and Pali terms. Many words, as Thai, Isan and Lao are closely related, are spelled the same, but Lao spelling is phonetic whilst Thai spelling is etymological. The following is a line from the old song Duang Champa (RTGS)/Douang Champa (BGN/PCGN), known throughout Isan and Laos:

Isan (Thai alphabet): เห็นสวนดอกไม้บิดาปลูกไว้ตั้งแต่ใดมา เวลาหงอยเหงา ยังช่วยบรรเทาให้หายโศกา
RTGS Romanisation: Hen suan dokmai bida pluk wai tang tae dai ma. Wela ngoi ngao, yang chuai banthao hai hai soka.
IPA (Thai [Central Thai]): /hĕn sŭan dɔ`k máj bì daː plùːk wáj tâŋ tɛ`ː daj ma wɛ laː ŋɔ̆ːj ŋăo janŋ tɕʰûaj ban tʰao hâj hăːj sŏː kaː/
IPA (Lao/Isan [Vientiane]): /hĕn sŭan dɔ̏ːk mâj bí daː pȕːk vȃj tȃŋ tɛ̄ː daj máː vɛ´ láː ŋɔ̆ːj ŋăo ɲáŋ sūaj ban tʰáo hȁj hăːj sŏː kaː/
Lao (Modern): ເຫັນສວນດອກໄມ້ ບິດາປູກໄວ້ ຕັ້ງແຕ່ໃດມາ ເວລາຫງອຍເຫງົາ ຍັງຊ່ວຍບັນເທົາໃຫ້ຫາຍໂສກາ
Lao (Archaic): ເຫັນສວນດອກໄມ້ບິດາປຼູກໄວ້ຕັ້ງແຕ່ໃດມາ ເວລາຫງຽເຫງົາ ຍັງຊ່ວຽບັຣເທົາໃຫ້ຫາຽໂສກາ
BGN/PCGN Romanisation: Hén souan dokmai bida pouk vai tang tè dai ma. Véla ngoi ngao, gnang souay banthao hai hai sôka.
IPA (Lao [Vietniane]): /hĕn sŭan dɔ̏ːk mâj bí daː pȕːk vȃj tȃŋ tɛ̄ː daj máː vɛ´ láː ŋɔ̆ːj ŋăo ɲáŋ sūaj ban tʰáo hȁj hăːj sŏː kaː/

Other scripts

A Mon-based alphabet, known as the Tai Tham alphabet (Isan: ตัวธรรม, /tùa tʰám/, cf. Lao: ຕົວທຳ/Archaic Lao: ຕົວທັມ, BGN/PCGN: Toua Tham) was adapted from the alphabet of the Northern Thai language during the brief union of the mandalas of Lan Na and Lan Xang under King Setthathirath from 1546-1551, when the libraries of Chiang Mai were copied and brought to Lan Xang. The name of the script literally means "dharma letters", indicative of its use to transcribe religious literature.

The use of the script is extinct, but a few specialists, such as the monks that maintain the libraries, are able to read it. Also known generally as Khom is the Khmer alphabet. It was not used to write the Isan language per se, but it is often used to write prayers and other Sanskrit, Pali, or Khmer literature, and is the official script of the Khmer language in Cambodia.

Mutual intelligibility with Thai

Thai and Isan (as well as Lao) share grammatical structures and most lexical terms, including a large corpus of shared Sanskrit and Pali loan words that entered the language through Indian cultural and religious influences. Educated and technical language are similar, but Thai speakers do have trouble understanding Isan. Many everyday common words are very different, and the differing tone distribution, which is phonemic in the tonal languages, vowel pitch and duration, and manner of speaking hinder understanding. Isan speakers, on the other hand, are generally bilingual in Thai, and even those who do not speak Thai well can understand it to a certain degree due to exposure in school and media. However, the level of understanding depends on sociolinguistic factors such as age and level of schooling.

Perceptions

Isan was historically the poorest and less educated region of Thailand, with the majority of people employed in traditional wet-rice cultivation and animal husbandry despite the infertile, salty soils and the unpredictable rains which make the region prone to cycles of flood and drought conditions that make farming difficult. Agriculture employs half the population, with an additional quarter of the population engaged in farming part-time. Although the region contains one-third the total population of Thailand, the region only generates 10.9% (2013) of the country's GDP. As a result, millions of Isan people leave during the dry season to find temporary work in menial jobs in Bangkok and other regions, working as taxi drivers, porters, factory workers, prostitutes, construction workers, salon assistants and janitors, but a large number leave permanently.

The language, as a result, suffers a poor perception in Thailand as a language of rustic, country bumpkins and uneducated staff. In addition, it is deprecated for its unique phonology, grammar and vocabulary inherited from its links to the Lao language, since many Isan pronunciations and words are cognates to words that are generally archaic in Thai or often match common habits in Thai speech that are sub-standard to the standard language, since Isan is considered a dialect of the Thai language within Thailand. Because of historic discrimination against Lao people, many Isan speakers are uncomfortable using the language in public in Bangkok or when in the presence of outsiders, and prefer switching to standard Thai and some may feel ashamed.

Another deprecated feature of the language is the low-class sound of the language due to the use of certain words and expressions that are cognate to very vulgar or crude words and phrases in Thai. For example, Isan prefixes อี่, i /īː/ (Lao ອີ່, i /īː/), before names and terms for young girls or women much younger than the speaker in innocent ways such as อี่นก, i nok /īː nōk/, to refer to or address a young girl named Nok, and อี่แม่, i mae /īː mɛ̄ː/, colloquial way to address or refer to one's mother (and even fathers as อี่พ่อ, i po /īː pʰɔ̄ː/). In Thai, a cognate word อี, i /iː/, is used in similar vein, but only when in complete disdain and contempt, such as อีตัว, i tua /iː tua, 'prostitute' (literally 'body woman') and อีบ้า, i ba /iː bâː/, 'mad bitch' so a Thai speaker unfamiliar with this would not take to kindly to hearing Isan i mae, 'mama', as it sounds incredibly vulgar. The low status of the language is contributing to the language shift currently taking place among younger Isan people, and some Isan children are unable to speak the language fluently, but the need for Thai will not diminish as it is mandatory for education and career advancement.

False cognates

Many Isan (and Lao) terms are very similar to words that are profane, vulgar or insulting in the Thai language, features which are much deprecated. For instance, younger girls and slightly older boys—in reference to the locutor's age—are often prefixed with อี่ (/ʔīː/, cf. Lao: ອີ່) and อ้าย (/ʔâːj/, cf. Lao: ອ້າຍ/archaic ອ້າຽ), respectively. In Thai, the similarly sounding อี, i (/ʔiː/) and ไอ้, ai (/ʔâj) are often prefixed before a woman's or man's name, respectively, or alone or in phrases which are considered extremely vulgar and insulting. This includes crude and exceedingly taboo expressions such as อีตัว "i tua", "whore" (/ʔiː nɔːŋ/) and ไอ้บ้า, "ai ba", "son of a bitch" (/ʔâj baː/).

Phonological differences

Isan speakers share the phonology of the Lao language of Laos, so the differences between Thai and Isan are the same as the differences between Thai and Lao. Even in shared vocabulary, differences in vowel distributions, tone and consonant inventory can hinder comprehension even with cognate vocabulary. In typical words, Lao and Isan lack the /r/ and /tɕʰ/, instead substituting /l/ and /h/ for instances of Thai /r/ and /s/ for Thai /tɕʰ/. Lao and Isan, however, include the sounds /ʋ/ and /ɲ/ which are replaced with Thai /w/ and /j/, respectively, in cognate vocabulary.

Simplification of consonant clusters C-/r/ or C-/l/

Syllables beginning with consonant clusters in Thai are written with them by Isan speakers writing in Isan, although only pronounced when code-switching to Thai or in academic and very formal settings.

Replacement of /r/ with /l/ or /h/

Words which are etymologically containing 'ร' (/r/) are pronounced as 'ล' /l/ or 'ฮ' /h/.

Replacement of /tɕʰ/ (or allophonic variant /ʃ/) with /s/

Isan pronounces words with the letters "ช" and "ฌ" /tɕʰ/ as 'ซ' /s/ and the letter 'ฉ' (also /tɕʰ/) as if pronounced as the letter 'ส' (also /s/).

Replacement of /j/ with /ɲ/ in certain words

Some words that begin with the letters ญ and ย (both /j/ in Thai) are generally pronounced as /ɲ/, which does not exist in Thai but does exist in Northern Thai.

Replacement of /w/ with /ʋ/

Similar to the Lao of Laos, Isan speakers often pronounce consonantal 'ว' at the start of syllables as /ʋ/, a sound not present in Thai, which only uses 'ว' for /w/ in the same environment.

Diphthongisation of consonant clusters with /w/ to /uːa/
Words with consonantal 'ว' and the proceeding vowel are often altered to /uːa/ in casual speech.

/ua/ to /uː/ or /uːa/

The Thai vowel /ua/ is lengthened in Isan to /uː/ or /uːa/.

Increased vowel epenthesis

In abugida scripts such as Thai and Lao, the inherent vowel /aʔ/ is often unwritten, especially in the etymological spelling of Thai loan words from Sanskrit, Pali or Khmer, but these are almost always written out in modern Lao spelling. Not all words, even if composed of the same Indic roots, will have the inherent vowel so the pronunciation of each word must be learned on a case-by-case basis in Thai. Cf. Thai ธรรมนิตย์, tham[m]anit /tʰam máʔ nít/ (TH-R-R-M-N-^I-T-[Y]), 'moral person', vs. ธรรมเกษตร, thamkaset /tʰam kàʔ sèːt/ (TH-R-R-M-K-E-S-T-R), 'land of justice'. In Lao and Isan, the trend is to pronounce the vowel regardless of its etymology, which to Thai speakers sounds provincial and uneducated, akin to the mispronunciation of English 'athlete' /ˈæθ liːt/ as *'athelete' /ˈæθ ə liːt/ in non-standard usage or 'arthritis' as *'arthuritis' /ɑːˈθ ə raɪ tɪs/. Isan speakers would pronounce the ธรรม- root as thamma-, leading to *ธรรมมะนิตย์, thammanit /tʰám māʔ nīt/ as expected, but also *ธรรมมะเกษตร, *thammakaset /tʰám māʔ káʔ sȅːt/ akin to Lao ທຳມະນິດ/Archaic ທັມມະນິຕ or ທັມມະນິຕຍ໌ /tʰám māʔ nīt/, thammanit (TH-AM-M-M-A-N-^I-D), and ທຳມະກະເສດ/Archaic ທັມມະກະເສດ or ທັມມະກເສຕ, thammakasét /tʰám māʔ ká sȅːt/ (TH-AM-M-A-K-A-E-S-D). In Lao spelling, as this vowel is pronounced, it is also always written in modern spelling, which often require insertion of a consonant to represent the phonological gemination.

Retention of certain historical Lao pronunciations

Tones

Although most words are shared between Thai, Isan, and Lao, problems in understanding can arise as tone is a phonemic feature in all three speech varieties. Standard Thai has five tones, although Lao dialects have anywhere from five to seven. The Thai word กา, ka (/kaː/ is pronounced with a middle tone in Standard Thai, based on the speech of Bangkok. In Laos, the cognate ກາ, ka (/kàː/), is low-falling in Standard Lao, based on the speech of Vientiane. In other Lao dialects, the same word could be pronounced with a low, rising, or high tone. In context, this presents few challenges, but a word out of context could be mistaken for other words. Tone in Thai determined by complex rules determined by consonant tone class, presence of tone markers, and vowel type. Since these rules are catering to Thai tonal patterns, they are deficient for representing Isan speech and their distinct tonal patterns.

Lexical differences from Thai

Although the Thai language has greatly influenced the vocabulary of Isan, many basic words in common use and in everyday conversation, most of the lexical items are more akin to Lao as used in Laos. These words may be understood by context, but alone, can be confused with Thai words of similar sound. The Lao romanisation may appear different as it is based on a French system.

Overview of the relationship with standard Lao

Isan is home to the majority of Lao speakers overall, and the Isan variety continues to remain mutually intelligible with the same dialects used in Laos. As Isan emerged as the Lao dialects that came under Thai control, the vocabulary, grammar and manner of speaking remain essentially the same, especially at the conversational differences. In more technical and academic situations, Isan and standard Lao differ because of the former's constant exposure to Thai, English and Chinese influences and the latter's influence by French and Vietnamese. Isan's adoption of Thai vocabulary and grammar is the greatest factor that distinguishes the two languages.

Code-switching

Isan speakers in Thailand are forced to use the Thai language to participate in larger society, as it is the language of television, radio, writing, education, government, formal situations and most Isan speakers are bilingual. Even those who do not speak Thai well due to never using it, are still likely to read and understand it, depending on age, location and socioeconomic factors.

Isan speakers liberally sprinkle Thai words and phrases in their speech, especially when discussing technical and academic matters, sometimes even mid-sentence in a process known as code-switching. For example, if an older man asks a younger brother, 'What is the man drinking?' he may receive one of several possible responses that all mean, 'Older brother, the man over there drinks tea':

Spelling and orthography

The Isan language is now written in the Thai alphabet, and with few minor exceptions, cognate vocabulary is spelled according to their Thai etymology and pronunciation. Thai spelling is etymological by nature, whereas Lao spelling, after a series of reforms, is now mostly phonetic. Spelling in modern Lao varies, but has become more standardised. In the past, when the Tua Lao or Tai Noy alphabet was in use, spelling ranged from etymological to purely phonetic, depending on the scribe or the intended audience. This has led to some key differences between the spelling used in Isan, based on Thai, and the modern spelling employed in Laos. The Thai alphabet has letters that are an almost one-to-one match with the devanagari script. The Lao alphabet used by monks and the elite formerly also had these letters, but the consonant inventory has also been reduced.

Retention of silent letters
Many loan words adopted from other languages have silent letters, and sometimes syllables, that were no longer pronounced, but provides clues to the original pronunciation and derivation of the word. In many cases, a special symbol was used to mark that the letters are silent. This cancellation mark is known as the การันต์, karan (/kaː rán/, cf. Lao: ກາຣັນ/archaic ກາຣັນຕ໌, karan).

Simplification of consonant clusters
Early forms of the Tai Noy alphabet included consonant clusters which no longer exist in the Isan or Lao language today, and were subsequently removed. Other consonant clusters, many found in loanwords, were not pronounced in common speech and only written in more academic or religious works. In Isan, as they are in Thai, consonant clusters are always written even if they are not pronounced in Isan. In modern Lao, these are mostly obsolete.

Gemination As consonants may have one value at the beginning of a syllable and one at the end, occasionally the same letter would be used to represent the proper ending sound of one syllable, but also the starting sound of the next syllable.

Insertion of vowels
In abugida scripts, inherent vowels can be left unwritten, generally representing /o/ in closed syllables and /aʔ/ in open syllables. The Tai Noy script uses a special mark above the letters that contain an inherent /o/, that continues to be used in Lao.

Simplification of terminal consonants
Syllables in Lao and Isan (as well as Thai) can only end in /k/, /ŋ/, /t/, /n/, /p/, and /m/. Every consonant has one sound at the beginning of a syllable, but must conform in pronunciation to one of the aforementioned terminal consonant sounds. In modern Lao spelling, terminal consonants were restricted to a specific set.

Reduction of Vowels
Vowels can be rendered in numerous ways, with some vowels representing numerous sounds. This process was simplified in Lao but is retained in Thai.

Typographical differences

Traditionally, no punctuation exists in either Thai, Isan, or Lao, save a handful of special symbols such as the cancellation mark (depicted over the letter representing /r/), repetition symbol, the ellipsis (used to shorten lengthy phrases, such as royal titles), and the et cetera symbol, which in Thai and Isan appear as ร์, ๆ, ฯ and ฯลฯ and Lao as ຣ໌, ໆ, ฯ and ฯລฯ, respectively. Another symbol, ๏ was formerly used in Thai and Lao to mark the beginning of chapters, paragraphs, or lines of a poem, but is now obsolete. Four tone marks (depicted over the letter representing /l/) are used, in Thai as ล่, ล้, ล็ and ล๋ which correspond to Lao as ລ່, ລ້, ລ໊ and ລ໋, respectively. In modern writing, Thai and Lao have both adopted the question mark "?", exclamation point "!", comma ",", parentheses "()", hyphen "-", ellipsis "...", and period "." from their respective English and French sources. Since Isan adopted the Thai punctuation via English, the quotation marks """" are used instead of guillemets, "«»", and spaces are not inserted before terminal punctuation marks. In Lao writing, the cancellation mark, the ellipsis, and the last two tone markers are relatively rare.

Formal language

Since the use of Central Thai is deemed polite and mandatory in official and formal settings, Isan speakers will often use the Thai ครับ, khrap (/kʰráp/), used by males, and ค่ะ, kha (/kʰaʔ/), used by females, sometimes in place of or after the ones shared with Lao. Isan speakers, however, do not use the very formal particle ข้าน้อย, khanoy (/kʰȁː nɔ̑ːj/, cf. Lao: ຂ້ານ້ອຍ/archaic ຂ້ານ້ຽ) at the end of sentences. Also, the use of เจ้า, chao (/tɕâo/, cf. Lao: ເຈົ້າ) and formal โดย, doy (/doːj/, cf. Lao: ໂດຍ/archaic ໂດຽ, dôy), to mark the affirmative or "yes" is no longer used in Isan, instead this is replaced with the general ending particles or the equivalent Thai expression.

Word order

A very few compounds in Lao are left-branching, but most of the time they are right-branching, as they are almost always in Thai and Isan.

Lexical comparison with Lao

Lao and Isan share most of their vocabulary, tone, and grammatical features, and the barriers of comprehension that would exist between a Thai speaker and a Lao speaker are absent between speakers of Isan and Lao. Technical, academic, and scientific language, and different sources for loan words have diverged the speech to an extent. Isan has borrowed most of its vocabulary from Thai, including numerous English and Chinese (Min Nan) loan words that are commonly used in Thai. Lao, on the other hand, has influences from French and Vietnamese that come from the establishment of the Protectorate of Laos and its inclusion in French Indochina. In ordinary and casual speech, only a few lexical items separate Isan and Lao, and many dialects do not end at the border.

Thai influences

The main thing that differentiates Isan from Lao is the use of numerous Thai words. The process accelerated with greater integration of Isan into Thai political control in the early 20th century. Thai words make up the bulk of scientific, technical, governmental, political, academic, and slang vocabularies that have been adopted in Isan. Many words used in Isan have become obsolete, such as the use of ขัว, khua (/kʰŭa/) and น้ำก้อน, nam kon (/nȃm kɔ̑ːn/), which exist in Laos as ຂົວ and ນ້ຳກ້ອນ, but replaced by Thai forms สะพาน, saphan, and น้ำแข็ง, nam khaeng, respectively. Thai, Isan, and Lao share vocabulary, but sometimes this can vary in frequency. For instance, Lao speakers use ສະພານ, saphan, as a more formal word for "bridge". The very formal Thai word for "house", เรือน, reuan (/rɯan/) is cognate to the common Isan เฮือน, heuan, and Lao ເຮືອນ, huan (/hɯ´an/). Although many Lao speakers can understand and speak Thai due to exposure to Thai publications and media, the official status of the language in Laos, pressure to preserve the Lao language, and unique neologisms and other influences differentiate the language from Thai. A few neologisms in Laos are unique coinages.

Lack of French influences

The incorporation of Isan into Siam prevented the Lao language spoken there from the adoption of French loan words. From 1893 till 1954, the French language was the administrative language of the Protectorate of Laos. The language continues to remain a second language of international diplomacy, higher education, government, and the old elite. Laos has been affiliated with La Francophonie since 1972, with full-member status in 1992. As of 2010, 173,800 people, approximately 3% of the population, were counted as French speakers. French-language content is occasionally found on Lao national radio and television, as well as in the weekly La Renovateur and alongside English in publications of Khaosane Pathét Lao News. In Isan, most words of European origin have entered the language via Thai, especially from English, which helps to differentiate the speech on either side of the Mekong River.

Lack of Vietnamese Influences

The French brought Vietnamese to Laos to boost the population of the larger cities and Vietnamese administrators to help govern the region. Large numbers of Vietnamese troops were stationed in Laos during at various times in Laos' history. This has enriched Lao with more Vietnamese influences which are not present in Isan.

Uniquely Isan

A small handful of lexical items are unique to Isan and not commonly found in standard Lao, but may exist in other Lao dialects. Some of these words exist alongside more typically Lao or Thai usages.

Other Isan-Lao Lexical Differences

Grammar

Isan words are not inflected, declined, conjugated, making Isan, like Lao and Thai, an analytic language. Special particle words function in lieu of prefixes and suffixes to mark verb tense. The majority of Isan words are monosyllabic, but compound words and numerous other very common words exist that are not. Topologically, Isan is a subject–verb–object (SVO) language, although the subject is often dropped. Word order is an important feature of the language.

Although in formal situations, standard Thai is often used, formality is marked in Isan by polite particles attached to the end of statements, and use of formal pronouns. Compared to Thai, Isan sounds very formal as pronouns are used with greater frequency, which occurs in formal Thai, but is more direct and simple compared to Thai. The ending particles เด้อ (doe, dɤː) or เด (de, deː) function much like ครับ (khrap, kʰráp), used by males, and คะ (kha, kʰaʔ), used by females, in Thai. (Isan speakers sometimes use the Thai particles in place of or after เด้อ or เด.) Negative statements often end in ดอก (dok, dɔ̀ːk), which can also be followed by the particle เด้อ and its variant.

Nouns

Nouns are not marked for plurals, gender nor are they declined for cases, and do not require an indefinite nor definite article. Plurals are often indicated with the use of classifiers, words to mark the special classes that nouns belong to. For instance, หมา (mǎː, ma) "dog" has the classifier โต (to, toː) which, as its meaning "body" implies, includes all things with legs, such as people, animals, tables, and chairs. "Three dogs" would be rendered as หมา ๓ โต (ma sam to, mǎː sǎːm toː), literally "dog three classifier".

Verbs are easily made into nouns by adding the prefixes ความ (khwam/kʰwaːm) and การ (kan/kːan) before verbs that express abstract actions and verbs that express physical actions, respectively. Adjectives and adverbs, which can function as complete predicates, only use ความ.

Pronouns Pronouns are often dropped in informal contexts, and are often replaced with nicknames or kinship terms, depending on the relation of the speaker to the person to whom is being spoken. Pronouns can also change depending on the register of speech, with many of the more formal pronouns borrowed from formal Thai speech registers. The more formal the language, the more likely that pronouns will not be dropped and that formal pronouns would be used. Pronouns can be pluralised by adding พวก (phuak, pʰuak) in front of the pronoun, e.g., พวกข้อย (phuak khoy/pʰuak kʰɔːj) is the same as เฮา (hao) or พวกเฮา (phuak hao/pʰuak haw). Age and status is important in determining usage. Younger boys and girls names are often prefixed with บัก (bak, bak) and อี่ (i, iː) respectively. Older males and females use อ้าย (ai, aːj) and เอี้อย (euay, ɯːaj) respectively instead. People who are much older may be politely addressed as aunt, uncle, mother, father, or even grandmother or grandfather depending on their age. Isan age-based name prefixes are often identical to or similar to vulgar, disparaging age-based name prefixes in Central Thai and should be avoided outside of Lao speaking regions in Thailand.

Adjectives and adverbs

There is no general distinction between adjectives and adverbs, and words of this category serve both functions and can even modify each other. Duplication is used to indicate greater intensity. Only one word can be duplicated per phrase. Adjectives always come after the noun they modify; adverbs may come before or after the verb depending on the word. There is usually no copula to link a noun to an adjective.

Comparatives take the form "A X กว่า B" (kwa, kwaː), A is more X than B. The superlative is expressed as "A X ที่สุด (thisut, tʰiːsut), A is most X.

Because adjectives or adverbs can be used as predicates, the particles that modify verbs are also used.

Verbs

Verbs are not declined for voice, number, or tense. To indicate tenses, particles can be used, but it is also very common just to use words that indicate the time frame, such as พรุ่งนี้ (phung ni, pʰuŋ niː) tomorrow or มื้อวานนี้ (meu wan ni, mɯː vaːn niː) yesterday.

Negation: Negation is indicated by placing บ่ (bo, bɔː) before the word being negated.

Future tense: Future tense is indicated by placing the particles จะ (cha, tɕaʔ) or ซิ (si, siː) before the verb.

Past tense: Past tense is indicated by either placing ได้ (dai, daj) before the verb or แล้ว (laew, lɛːw) after the verb or even using both in tandem for emphasis. แล้ว is the more common one, and can be used to indicate completed actions or current actions of the immediate past. ได้ is often used with negative statements and never for present action.

Present progressive: To indicate an ongoing action, กำลัง (kamlang, kam.laŋ) can be used before the verb or อยู่ (yu, juː) after the verb. These can also be combined for emphasis. In Isan and Lao, พวม (phuam, pʰuam) is often used instead of กำลัง.

The verb 'to be' can be expressed in many ways. In use as a copula, it is often dropped between nouns and adjectives. Compare English She is pretty and Isan สาวงาม (literally lady pretty). There are two copulas used in Isan, as in Lao, one for things relating to people, เป็น (pen, pen), and one for objects and animals, แม่น (maen, mɛːn).

Questions and answers

Unlike English, which indicates questions by a rising tone, or Spanish, which changes the order of the sentences to achieve the same result, Isan uses question tag words. The use of question words makes use of the question mark (?) redundant in Isan.

General yes/no questions end in บ่ (same as บ่, "no, not").

Other question words

Answers to questions usually just involve repetition of the verb and any nouns for clarification.

Words asked with a negative can be confusing and should be avoided. The response, even though without the negation, will still be negated due to the nature of the question.

Vocabulary

The Tai languages of Thailand and Laos share a large corpus of cognate, native vocabulary. They also share many common words and neologisms that were derived from Sanskrit, Pali, Mon and Khmer and other indigenous inhabitants to Indochina. However, there are traits that distinguish Isan both from Thai and its Lao parent language.

Isan is clearly differentiated from Thai by its Lao intonation and vocabulary. However, Isan differs from Lao in that the former has more English and Chinese loanwords, via Thai, not to mention large amounts of Thai influence. The Lao adopted French and Vietnamese loanwords as a legacy of French Indochina. Other differences between Lao and Lao include terminology that reflect the social and political separation since 1893 as well as differences in neologisms created after this. These differences, and a few very small deviations for certain common words, do not, however, diminish nor erase the Lao characters of the language.