The Histories (Greek: Ἱστορίαι; [his.to.rí.ai̯]; also known as The History) of Herodotus is now considered the founding work of history in Western literature. Written in 440 BC in the Ionic dialect of classical Greek, The Histories serves as a record of the ancient traditions, politics, geography, and clashes of various cultures that were known in Western Asia, Northern Africa and Greece at that time. Although not a fully impartial record, it remains one of the West's most important sources regarding these affairs. Moreover, it established the genre and study of history in the Western world (despite the existence of historical records and chronicles beforehand).
The Histories also stands as one of the first accounts of the rise of the Persian Empire, as well as the events and causes of the Greco-Persian Wars between the Achaemenid Empire and the Greek city-states in the 5th century BC. Herodotus portrays the conflict as one between the forces of slavery (the Persians) on the one hand, and freedom (the Athenians and the confederacy of Greek city-states which united against the invaders) on the other.
The Histories was at some point divided into the nine books that appear in modern editions, conventionally named after the nine Muses.
Herodotus claims to have traveled extensively around the ancient world, nearly all these territories were directly under the Persian Empire, conducting interviews and collecting stories for his book. At the beginning of The Histories, Herodotus sets out his reasons for writing it:
The rapes of Io, Europa, and Medea, which motivated Paris to abduct Helen. The subsequent Trojan War is marked as a precursor to later conflicts between peoples of Asia and Europe. (1.1–5)Colchis, Colchians and Medea. (1.2.2–1.2.3)The rulers of Lydia (on the west coast of Asia Minor, today modern Turkey): Candaules, Gyges, Sadyattes, Alyattes, Croesus (1.6–7)How Gyges took the kingdom from Candaules (1.8–13)The singer Arion's ride on the dolphin (1.23–24)Solon's answer to Croesus's question that Tellus was the happiest person in the world (1.29–33)Croesus's efforts to protect his son Atys, his son's accidental death by Adrastus (1.34–44)Croesus's test of the oracles (1.46–54)The answer from the Oracle of Delphi concerning whether Croesus should attack the Persians (famous for its ambiguity): If you attack a great empire will fall.Peisistratos' rises and falls from power as tyrant of Athens (1.59–64)The rise of Sparta (1.65–68)The Battle of Halys; Thales predicts the solar eclipse of May 28, 585 B.C. (1.74)Croesus's defeat by Cyrus II of Persia, and how he later became Cyrus's advisor (1.70–92)The rulers of the Medes: Deioces, Phraortes, Cyaxares, Astyages, Cyrus II of Persia (1.95–144)The rise of Deioces over the MedesAstyages's attempt to destroy Cyrus, and Cyrus's rise to powerHarpagus tricked into eating his son, his revenge against Astyages by assisting CyrusThe culture of the PersiansThe history and geography of the Ionians, and the attacks on it by HarpagusPactyes' convinces the Lydians to revolt. Rebellion fails and he seeks refuge from Mazares in Cyme (Aeolis)The culture of Assyria, especially the design and improvement of the city of Babylon and the ways of its peopleCyrus's attack on Babylon, including his revenge on the river Gyndes and his famous method for entering the cityCyrus's ill-fated attack on the Massagetæ, leading to his deathThe proof of the antiquity of the Phrygians by the use of children unexposed to languageThe geography of EgyptSpeculations on the Nile riverThe religious practices of Egypt, especially as they differ from the GreeksThe animals of Egypt: cats, dogs, crocodiles, hippopotamuses, otters, phoenixes, sacred serpents, winged snakes, ibisesThe culture of Egypt: medicine, funeral rites, food, boatsThe kings of Egypt: Menes, Nitocris, Mœris, Sesostris, Pheron, ProteusHelen and Paris's stay in Egypt, just before the Trojan War (2.112–120) More kings of Egypt: Rhampsinit (and the story of the clever thief), Cheops (and the building of the Great Pyramid of Giza using machines), Chephren, Mycerinus, Asychis, Anysis, SethôsThe line of priestsThe LabyrinthMore kings of Egypt: the twelve, Psammetichus (and his rise to power), Necôs, Psammis, Apries, Amasis II (and his rise to power)Cambyses II of Persia's (son of Cyrus II and king of Persia) attack on Egypt, and the defeat of the Egyptian king Psammetichus III.Cambyses's abortive attack on EthiopiaThe madness of CambysesThe good fortune of Polycrates king of SamosPeriander, the king of Corinth and Corcyra, and his obstinate sonThe revolt of the two Magi in Persia and the death of CambysesThe conspiracy of the seven to remove the MagiThe rise of Darius I of Persia.The twenty satrapiesThe culture of India and china and their method of collecting goldThe culture of Arabia and their method of collecting spicesThe flooded valley with five gatesOrœtes's (governor of Sardis) scheme against PolycratesThe physician DemocêdesThe rise of Syloson governor of SamosThe revolt of Babylon and assyria and its defeat by the scheme of ZopyrusThe history of the Scythians (from the land north of the Black Sea)The miraculous poet AristeasThe geography of ScythiaThe inhabitants of regions beyond Scythia: Sauromatae, Budini, Thyssagetae, Argippaeans, Issedones, Arimaspi, HyperboreansA comparison of Libya (Africa), Asia, and EuropeThe rivers of Scythia: the Ister, the Tyras, the Hypanis, the Borysthenes, the Panticapes, the Hypacyris, the Gerrhus, and the TanaisThe culture of the Scythians: religion, burial rites, xenophobia (the stories of Anacharsis and Scylas), populationThe beginning of Darius's attack on Scythia, including the pontoon bridge over the BosphorusThe brutal worship of Zalmoxis by the GetaeThe customs of the surrounding peoples: Tauri, Agathyrsi, Neuri, Androphagi (man-eaters), Melanchlaeni, Geloni, Budini, SauromataeThe wooing of the Amazons by the Scyths, forming the SauromataeDarius's failed attack on Scythia and consequent retreatThe story of the Minyæ (descendants of the Argonauts) and the founding of CyreneThe kings of Cyrene: Battus I, Arcesilaus I, Battus II, Arcesilaus II, Battus III (and the reforms of Demonax), Arcesilaus III (and his flight, restoration, and assassination), Battus IV, and Arcesilaus IV (his revolt and death)The peoples of Libya from east to westThe revenge of Arcesilaus' mother PheretimaThe attack on the Thracians by MegabazusThe removal of the Paeonians to AsiaThe slaughter of the Persian envoys by Alexander I of MacedonThe failed attack on the Naxians by Aristagoras, tyrant of MiletusThe revolt of Miletus against PersiaThe background of Cleomenes I, king of Sparta, and his half brother DorieusThe description of the Persian Royal Road from Sardis to SusaThe introduction of writing to Greece by the PhoeniciansThe freeing of Athens by Sparta, and its subsequent attacks on AthensThe reorganizing of the Athenian tribes by CleisthenesThe attack on Athens by the Thebans and EginetansThe backgrounds of the tyrants of Corinth, Cypselus and his son PerianderAristagoras's failed request for help from Sparta, and successful attempt with AthensThe burning of Sardis, and Darius's vow for revenge against the AtheniansPersia's attempts to quell the Ionian revoltThe fleeing of Histiaeus to ChiosThe training of the Ionian fleet by Dionysius of PhocaeaThe abandonment of the Ionian fleet by the Samians during battleThe defeat of the Ionian fleet by the PersiansThe capture and death of Histiaeus by HarpagusThe invasion of Greece under Mardonius and enslavement of MacedonThe destruction of 300 ships in Mardonius's fleet near AthosThe order of Darius that the Greeks provide him earth and water, in which most consent, including AeginaThe Athenian request for assistance of Cleomenes of Sparta in dealing with the traitorsThe history behind Sparta having two kings and their powersThe dethronement of Demaratus, the other king of Sparta, due to his supposed false lineageThe arrest of the traitors in Aegina by Cleomenes and the new king LeotychidesThe suicide of Cleomenes in a fit of madness, possibly caused by his war with Argos, drinking unmixed wine, or his involvement in dethroning DemaratusThe battle between Aegina and AthensThe taking of Eretria by the Persians after the Eretrians sent away Athenian helpPheidippides's encounter with the god Pan on a journey to Sparta to request aidThe assistance of the Plataeans, and the history behind their alliance with AthensThe Athenian win at the Battle of Marathon, led by Miltiades and other strategoiThe Spartans late arrival to assist AthensThe history of the Alcmaeonidae and how they came about their wealth and statusThe death of Miltiades after a failed attack on Paros and the successful taking of LemnosThe amassing of an army by Darius after learning about the defeat at MarathonThe quarrel between which son should succeed Darius in which Xerxes I of Persia is chosenThe death of Darius in 486 BCThe defeat of the Egyptian rebels by XerxesThe advice given to Xerxes on invading Greece: Mardonius for invasion, Artabanus against (9-10)The dreams of Xerxes in which a phantom frightens him and Artabanus into choosing invasionThe preparations for war, including building the Xerxes Canal and Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges across the HellespontThe offer by Pythius to give Xerxes all his money, in which Xerxes rewards himThe request by Pythius to allow one son to stay at home, Xerxes's anger, and the march out between the butchered halves of Pythius's sonThe destruction and rebuilding of the bridges built by the Egyptians and Phoenicians at AbydosThe siding with Persia of many Greek states, including Thessaly, Thebes, Melia, and ArgosThe refusal of aid after negotiations by Gelo of Syracuse, and the refusal from CreteThe destruction of 400 Persian ships due to a stormThe small Greek force (approx. 7000) led by Leonidas I, sent to Thermopylae to delay the Persian army (~5,283,220 (Herodotus) )The Battle of Thermopylae in which the Greeks hold the pass for 3 daysThe secret pass divulged by Ephialtes of Trachis, which Hydarnes uses to lead forces around the mountains to encircle the GreeksThe retreat of all but the Spartans, Thespians, and Thebans (forced to stay by the Spartans).The Greek defeat and order by Xerxes to remove Leonidas's head and attach his torso to a crossGreek fleet is led by Eurybiades, a Spartan commander who led the Greek fleet after the meeting at the Isthmus 481 BC,The destruction by storm of two hundred ships sent to block the Greeks from escapingThe retreat of the Greek fleet after word of a defeat at ThermopylaeThe supernatural rescue of Delphi from a Persian attackThe evacuation of Athens assisted by the fleetThe reinforcement of the Greek fleet at Salamis Island, bringing the total ships to 378The destruction of Athens by the Persian land force after difficulties with those who remainedThe Battle of Salamis, the Greeks have the advantage due to better organization, and fewer losses due to ability to swimThe description of the Angarum, the Persian riding postThe rise in favor of Artemisia, the Persian woman commander, and her council to Xerxes in favor of returning to PersiaThe vengeance of Hermotimus, Xerxes' chief eunuch, against PanioniusThe attack on Andros by Themistocles, the Athenian fleet commander and most valiant Greek at SalamisThe escape of Xerxes and leaving behind of 300,000 picked troops under Mardonius in ThessalyThe ancestry of Alexander I of Macedon, including PerdiccasThe refusal of an attempt by Alexander to seek a Persian alliance with AthensThe second taking of an evacuated AthensThe evacuation to Thebes by Mardonius after the sending of Lacedaemonian troopsThe slaying of Masistius, leader of the Persian cavalry, by the AtheniansThe warning from Alexander to the Greeks of an impending attackThe death of Mardonius by AeimnestusThe Persian retreat to Thebes where they are afterwards slaughtered (Battle of Plataea)The description and dividing of the spoilsThe speedy escape of Artabazus into Asia.The Persian defeat in Ionia by the Greek fleet (Battle of Mycale), and the Ionian revoltThe mutilation of the wife of Masistes ordered by Amestris, wife of XerxesThe death of Masistes after his intent to rebelThe Athenian blockade of Sestos and the capture of ArtayctesGeorge Rawlinson, 1858: in classics.mit.edu full text of all books (Book I to Book IX)George Campbell Macaulay, 1904: full text, vol. 1, full text, vol. 2 Project GutenbergAlfred Denis Godley, 1921: full text, librivox audiobook, vol. 1, librivox audiobook, vol. 2, librivox audiobook, vol. 3Aubrey de Sélincourt, 1954 excerpts;1972, 1996, 2003, revised once by A. R. Burn, and twice by John MarincolaHarry Carter, 1958David Grene, 1985Walter Blanco and Jennifer Tolbert Roberts, 1992Robin Waterfield, 1998Shlomo Felberbaum, 2003 – work in progress: full textAndrea L. Purvis, 2007, ed. by Robert B. StrasslerTom Holland, 2013 [1]Pamela Mensch, with notes by James Romm, 2014 [2]Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 18Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 19Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 2099, early 2nd century AD - fragment of Book VIII