VOC Opperhoofden in Japan were the chief traders of the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC in old-spelling Dutch, literally "United East Indian Company") in Japan during the period of the Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the Edo period.
Opperhoofd is a Dutch word (plural opperhoofden) which literally means 'supreme head[man]'. In its historical usage, the word is a gubernatorial title, comparable to the English chief factor, for the chief executive officer of a Dutch factory in the sense of trading post, as led by a factor, i.e. agent. The Japanese called the Dutch chief factors kapitan (from Portuguese capitão).
The Dutch East India Company was established in 1602 by the States-General of the Netherlands to carry out colonial activities in Asia. The VOC enjoyed unique success in Japan, in part because of the ways in which the character and other qualities of its Opperhoofden were perceived to differ from other competitors.
The first VOC trading outpost in Japan was on the island of Hirado off the coast of Kyūshū. Permission for establishing this permanent facility was granted in 1609 by the first Tokugawa-shōgun Ieyasu; but the right to make use of this convenient location was revoked in 1639.
In 1638, the harsh Sakoku ("closed door" policy) was ordered by the Tokugawa shogunate; and by 1641, the VOC had to transfer all of its mercantile operations to the small man-made island of Dejima in Nagasaki harbor. The island had been built for the Portuguese, but they had been forced to abandon it and all contacts with Japan. Only the Dutch were permitted to remain after all other Westerners had been excluded.
The Dutch presence in Japan was closely monitored and controlled. For example, each year the VOC had to transfer the opperhoofd. Each opperhoofd was expected to travel to Edo to offer tribute to the shogun (Dutch missions to Edo). The VOC traders had to be careful not to import anything religious; and they were not allowed to bring any females, nor to bury their dead ashore. They were largely free to do as they pleased on the island; but they were explicitly ordered to work on Sunday.
For nearly 200 years a series of VOC traders lived, worked and seemed to thrive in this confined location.
In 1799 the VOC went bankrupt. The trade with Japan was continued by the Dutch Indian government at Batavia, with an interruption during the English occupation of Java, during which the English (Stamford Raffles) unsuccessfully tried to capture Dejima. After the creation of the Kingdom of The Netherlands (1815) the trade with Japan came under the administration of the Minister of the Colonies by way of the Governor General in Batavia. The directors of the trade (Opperhoofd) became colonial civil servants. From 1855 the director of the trade with Japan, J.H. Donker Curtius, became 'Dutch Commissioner in Japan' with orders to conclude a treaty with Japan. He succeeded in 1855 to conclude a convention, changed into a treaty in January 1856. In 1857 he concluded a commercial paragraph in addition to the treaty of 1856, thus concluding the first western treaty of friendship and commerce with Japan. His successor, J.K. de Wit was Dutch Consul General in Japan, though still a colonial civil servant. In 1862 the Dutch representation in Japan was transferred to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. This change was effected in Japan in 1863, Dirk de Graeff van Polsbroek becoming Consul General and Political Agent in Japan.
Hirado (平戸島, Hirado-shima) is a small island just off the western shore of the Japanese island of Kyūshū. In the early 17th century, Hirado was a major center of foreign trade and included British, Chinese, and other trading stations along with the Dutch one, maintained and operated by the VOC after 1609. The serial leaders of this VOC trading enclave or "factory" at Hirado were:
Jacques Specx: 20.9.1609 - 28.8.1612
Hendrick Brouwer: 28.8.1612 - 6.8.1614
Jacques Specx: 6.8.1614 - 29.10.1621
Leonardt Camps: 29.10.1621 - 21.11.1623
Cornelis van Nijenroode: 21.11.1623 - _._.1631
Pieter Stamper: 1631
Cornelis van Nijenrode: _._.1631 - 31.1.1633
Pieter van Sante or Pieter van Santen: 31.1.1633 - 6.9.1633
Nicolaes Couckebacker: 6.9.1633 - _._.1635
Maerten Wesselingh or Hendrick Hagenaer (?): _._.1635-_._.1637
Nicolaes Couckebacker: _._.1637 - 3.2.1639
François Caron: 3.2.1639 - 13.2.1641 Caron was the last Opperhoofd at Hirado.
Dejima (出島) was a fan-shaped artificial island in the bay of Nagasaki. This island was a Dutch trading post during Japan's period of maritime restrictions (海禁, kaikin, 1641–1853) during the Edo period. The serial leaders of this VOC trading enclave or "factory" at Dejima were:
Maximiliaen Le Maire: 14.2.1641 - 30.10.1641 Le Maire was the first "new" chief trader at Dejima
Jan van Elseracq: 1.11.1641 - 29.10.1642
Pieter Anthoniszoon Overtwater: 29.10.1642 - 1.8.1643
Jan van Elseracq: 1.8.1643 - 24.11.1644
Pieter Anthonijszoon Overtwater: 24.11.1644 - 30.11.1645
Renier van Tzum: 30.11.1645 - 27.10.1646
Willem Verstegen [Versteijen]: 28.10.1646 - 10.10.1647
Frederick Coyett: 3.11.1647 - 9.12.1648
Dircq Snoecq: 9.12.1648 - 5.11.1649
Anthonio van Brouckhorst: 5.11.1649 - 25.10.1650
Pieter Sterthemius: 25.10.1650 - 3.11.1651
Adriaen van der Burgh: 1.11.1651 - 3.11.1652
Frederick Coyett: 4.11.1652 - 10.11.1653
Gabriel Happart: 4.11.1653 - 31.10.1654
Leonard Winninx: 31.10.1654 - 23.10.1655
Joan Boucheljon: 23.10.1655 - 1.11.1656
Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener]: 1.11.1656 - 27.10.1657
Joan Boucheljon: 27.10.1657 - 23.10.1658
Zacharias Wagenaer [Wagener]: 22.10.1658 - 4.11.1659
Joan Boucheljon: 4.11.1659 - 26.10.1660
Hendrick Indijck: 26.10.1660 - 21.11.1661
Dirck van Lier: 11.11.1661 - 6.11.1662
Hendrick Indijck: 6.11.1662 - 20.10.1663
Willem Volger: 20.10.1663 - 7.11.1664
Jacob Gruijs: 7.11.1664 - 27.10.1665
Willem Volger: 28.10.1665: - 27.10.1666
Daniel Six: 18.10.1666 - 6.11.1667
Constantin Ranst de Jonge: 6.11.1667 - 25.10.1668
Daniel Six [Sicx]: 25.10.1668 - 14.10.1669
François de Haze: 14.10.1669 - 2.11.1670
Martinus Caesar: 2.11.1670 - 12.11.1671
Johannes Camphuys: 22.10.1671 - 12.11.1672
Martinus Caesar: 13.11.1672 - 29.10.1673
Johannes Camphuys: 29.10.1673 - 19.10.1674
Martinus Caesar: 20.10.1674 - 7.11.1675
Johannes Camphuys: 7.11.1675 - 27.10.1676
Dirck de Haze: 27.10.1676 - 16.10.1677
Albert Brevincq: 16.10.1677 - 4.11.1678
Dirck de Haas: 4.11.1678 - 24.10.1679
Albert Brevincq: 24.10.1679 - 11.11.1680
Isaac van Schinne: 11.11.1680 - 31.10.1681
Hendrick Canzius: 31.10.1681 - 20.10.1682
Andreas Cleyer: 20.10.1682 - 8.11.1683
Constantin Ranst de Jonge: 8.11.1683 - 28.10.1684
Hendrick van Buijtenhem: 25.10.1684 - 7.10.1685
Andreas Cleyer: 17.10.1685 - 5.11.1686
Constantin Ranst de Jonge: 5.11.1686 - 25.10.1687
Hendrick van Buijtenhem: 25.10.1687 - 13.10.1688
Cornelis van Outhoorn: 13.10.1688 - 1.11.1689
Balthasar Sweers: 1.11.1689 - 21.10.1690
Hendrick van Buijtenhem: 21.10.1690 - 09.11.1691
Cornelis van Outhoorn: 9.11.1691 - 29.10.1692
Hendrick van Buijtenhem: 29.10.1692 - 19.10.1693
Gerrit de Heere: 19.10.1693: - 7.11.1694
Hendrik Dijkman: 7.11.1694 - 27.10.1695
Cornelis van Outhoorn: 27.10.1695 - 15.10.1696
Hendrik Dijkman: 15.10.1696 - 3.11.1697
Pieter de Vos: 3.11.1697 - 23.10.1698
Hendrik Dijkman: 23.10.1698 - 12.10.1699
Pieter de Vos: 21.10.1699 - 31.10.1700
Hendrik Dijkman: 31.10.1700 - 21.10.1701
Abraham Douglas: 21.10.1701 - 30.10.1702
Ferdinand de Groot: 9.11.1702 - 30.10.1703
Gideon Tant: 30.10.1703 - 18.10.1704
Ferdinand de Groot: 18.10.1704 - 6.11.1705
Ferdinand de Groot: 26.10.1706 - 15.10.1707
Hermanus Menssingh: 15.10.1707 - 2.11.1708
Jasper van Mansdale: 2.11.1708 - 22.10.1709
Hermanus Menssingh: 22.10.1709 - 10.11.1710
Nicolaas Joan van Hoorn: 10.11.1710 - 31.10.1711
Cornelis Lardijn: 31.10.1711 - 7.11.1713
Cornelis Lardijn: 7.11.1713 - 27.10.1714
Nicolaas Joan van Hoorn: 27.10.1714 -19.10.1715
Gideon Boudaen: 19.10.1715 - 3.11.1716
Joan Aouwer: 3.11.1716 - 24.10.1717
Christiaen van Vrijbergh[e]: 24.10.1717 - 13.10.1718
Joan Aouwer: 13.10.1718 - 21.10.1720
Roeloff Diodati: 21.10.1720 - 9.11.1721
Hendrik Durven: 9.11.1721 - 18.10.1723
Johannes Thedens: 18.10.1723 - 25.10.1725
Joan de Hartogh: 25.10.1725 - 15.10.1726
Pieter Boockestijn: 15.10.1726 - 3.11.1727
Abraham Minnedonk: 3.11.1727 - 20.10.1728
Pieter Boockestijn: 22.10.1728 - 12.10.1729
Abraham Minnedonk: 12.10.1729 - 31.10.1730
Pieter Boockestijn: 31.10.1730 - 7.11.1732
Hendrik van de Bel: 7.11.1732 - 27.10.1733
Rogier de Laver: 27.10.1733 - 16.10.1734
David Drinckman: 16.10.1734 - 4.11.1735
Bernardus Coop [Coopa] à Groen: 4.11.1735 - 24.10.1736
Jan van der Cruijsse: 24.10.1736 - 13.10.1737
Gerardus Bernardus Visscher: 13.10.1737 - 21.10.1739
Thomas van Rhee: 22.10.1739 - 8.11.1740
Jacob van der Waeijen: 9.11.1740 - 28.10.1741
Thomas van Rhee: 29.10.1741 - 17.10.1742
Jacob van der Waeijen: 17.10.1742 - 9.11.1743
David Brouwer: 5.11.1743 - 1.11.1744
Jacob van der Waeijen: 2.11.1744 - 28.12.1745
Jan Louis de Win: 30.12.1745 - 2.11.1746
Jacob Baelde: 3.11.1746 - 25.10.1747
Jan Louis de Win: 28.10.1747 - 11.11.1748
Jacob Baelde: 12.11.1748 - 8.12.1749
Hendrik van Homoed: 8.12.1749 - 24.12.1750
Abraham van Suchtelen: 25.12.1750 - 18.11.1751
Hendrik van Homoed: 19.11.1751 - 5.12.1752
David Boelen: 6.12.1752 - 15.10.1753
Hendrik van Homoed: 16.10.1753 - 3.11.1754
David Boelen: 4.11.1754 - 25.10.1755
Herbert Vermeulen: 25.10.1755 - 12.10.1756
David Boelen: 13.10.1756 - 31.10.1757
Herbert Vermeulen: 1.11.1757 - 11.11.1758
Johannes Reijnouts: 12.11.1758 - 11.11.1760
Marten Huijshoorn: 12.11.1760 - 30.10.1761
Johannes Reijnouts: 31.10.1761 - 2.12.1762
Fredrik Willem Wineke: 3.12.1762 - 6.11.1763
Jan Crans: 7.11.1763 - 24.10.1764
Fredrik Willem Wineke: 25.10.1764 - 7.11.1765
Jan Crans: 8.11.1765 - 31.10.1766
Herman Christiaan Kastens: 1.11.1766 - 20.10.1767
Jan Crans: 21.10.1767 - 8.11.1769
Olphert Elias: 9.11.1769 - 16.11.1770
Daniel Armenault: 17.11.1770 - 9.11.1771
Arend Willem Feith: 10.11.1771 - 3.11.1772
Daniel Armenault [Almenaault]: 4.11.1772 - 22.11.1773
Arend Willem Feith: 23.11.1773 - 10.11.1774
Daniel Armenault [Almenaault]: 11.11.1774 - 28.10.1775
Arend Willem Feith: 28.10.1775 - 22.11.1776
Hendrik Godfried Duurkoop: 23.11.1776 - 11.11.1777
Arend Willem Feith: 12.11.1777 - 28.11.1779
Isaac Titsingh: 29.11.1779 - 5.11.1780
Arend Willem Feith: 6.11.1780 - 23.11.1781
Isaac Titsingh: 24.11.1781 - 26.10.1783
Hendrik Caspar Romberg: 27.10.1783 - _.8.1784
Isaac Titsingh: _.8.1784 - 30.11.1784
Hendrik Caspar Romberg: 0.11.84 - 21.11.1785
Johan Fredrik van Rheede tot de Parkeler: 22.11.1785 - 20.11.1786
Hendrik Caspar Romberg: 21.11.1786 - 30.11.1787
Johan Frederik van Rheede tot de Parkeler: 1.12.1787 - 1.8.1789
Hendrik Casper Romberg: 1.8.1789 - 13.11.1790
Petrus Theodorus Chassé: 13.11.1790 - 13.11.1792
Gijsbert Hemmij: 13.11.1792 - 8.7.1798
Leopold Willem Ras: 8.7.1798 - 17.7.1800
Willem Wardenaar: 16.7.1800 - 14.11.1803
Hendrik Doeff: 14.11.1803 - 6.12.1817
Jan Cock Blomhoff: 6.12.1817 - 20.11.1823
Johan Willem de Sturler: 20.11.1823 - 5.8.1826
Germain Felix Meijlan: 4.8.1826 - 1.11.1830
Jan Willem Fredrik van Citters: 1.11.1830 - 30.11.1834
Johannes Erdewin Niemann: 1.12.1834 - 17.11.1838
Eduard Grandisson: 18.11.1838 - _.11.1842
Pieter Albert Bik: _.11.1842 - 31.10.1845
Joseph Henrij Levijssohn: 1.11.1845 - 31.10.1850
Frederick Colnelis Rose: 1.11.1850 - 31.10.1852
Janus Henricus Donker Curtius: 2.11.1852 - 28.2.1860 [Donker Curtius became the last in a long list of hardy Dutch Opperhoofden who were stationed at Dejima; and fortuitously, Curtius also became the first of many Dutch diplomatic and trade representatives in Japan during the burgeoning pre-Meiji years.]
