Old Church Slavonic grammar

Nouns

The nominal case category distinguishes 7 cases for nouns, 6 for pronouns and adjectives (no vocative):

Indefinite pronouns and adjectives

The interrogative pronouns kъto, čьto can also have the indefinite meanings of 'anybody', 'anything' respectively.

The prefix ně- imparts an indefinite meaning to the word to which it is attached: thus kъto ('who?') becomes někъto ('someone'), and čьto ('what?') becomes něčьto ('something'). Similarly, the prefix ni- imparts a negative meaning: nikъto ('no one'), ničьto ('nothing'). A prepositions may come between prefix and base word:

ně u kogo — with someone ni o komьže nerodiši — you care for no one

Adjectives

OCS adjectives can be in two forms: short and long, corresponding to indefinite and definite meaning respectively. The long form is generally used only attributively, whereas the short form is predicative in nature. So, e.g., člověkъ dobrъ "a good man, man is good" whilst člověkъ dobryi "the good man, the man who is good".

Indefinite adjectives are inflected as the corresponding nouns of the primary declension, e.g., novъ as rabъ, nova as žena, novo as selo, ništь as vračь, ništa as duša, nište as polje.

Definite adjectives (also known as compound, long, or pronominal forms of adjective) are formed by suffixing to the indefinite form the anaphoric third-person pronoun jь (spelled as i in OCS orthography), ja, je as shown in the table.

Adjective gradation

There are three levels of adjective gradation in OCS:

positive, stating an absolute property of an object;

comparative, stating a relative property of an object;

superlative, stating a property of an object in relation to any other object it may be compared to.

Comparative

1. Adjectives with falling tone on the root syllable:
2. Adjectives with rising tone on the root syllable:

Superlative

The superlative is formed:

1. by adding the prefix nai- to the comparative base: naidražii, naitęžьši, naigrǫble;
2. by combining the comparative form with the pronoun vьsego/vьsěxъ: nověi vьsego, dražii vьsěxъ.

The absolute superlative is formed:

1. by adding the prefix prě- to the positive: prědragъ, prěnova, prěstaro;
2. by using the adverb Ʒělo with the positive: Ʒělo dragъ, Ʒělo nova, Ʒělo staro.

sъto is declined as selo, tysęšti as bogyni, tьma as žena, leĝeonъ as rabъ

All ordinals are inflected like the corresponding adjectives.

Present

The present tense is formed by adding present-tense endings onto the present tense stem, which itself is sometimes hidden due to sound changes that have occurred in the past (more common verbs are listed):

bosti (bod-), vesti (ved- or vez-), krasti (krad-), iti (id-)

plesti (plet-), mesti (met-), greti (greb-), krasti (krad-)

rešti (rek-), pešti (pek-), mošti (mog-), tešti (tek-)

There are several classes of verbs:

1. e-type verbs add the interfix -e- to the present stem (except in front of -ǫ) and the endings:

2. i-type verbs exhibit the same set of endings, but this time the interfix is -i- (except in front of -ǫ and -ę). In the first person singular one finds the processes of iotation (k/c + j > č, g/z + j > ž, x/s + j > š, l + j > lj, n + j > nj, t + j > št, d + j > žd) and epenthesis (bj > blj, pj > plj, mj > mlj, vj > vlj):

3. The athematic verbs byti, dati, věděti, iměti and jasti form the present tense irregularly:

One should distinguish the verbs iměti (imamь, imaši, imatъ), imati (jemljǫ, jemleši, jemletъ) and jęti (imǫ, imeši, imetъ). Exceptional is also the verb xotěti which exhibits iotation even though it's not an i-type verb (xoštǫ, xošteši, xoštetъ).

Asigmatic aorist

The asigmatic aorist (also called root or simple aorist) was named after the loss of the phoneme /s/ in the inflection (AGr. sigma), i.e. there is no VsV > VxV change (intervocalic /s/ yielding /x/). Over time, the asigmatic aorist became increasingly marked as an archaic language feature and was eventually replaced by the other two aorist formations.

The asigmatic aorist was formed by adding to the infinitive stem of e-type verbs with stem ending in a consonant (i.e. verbs with the infix -nǫ-, which is dropped before the aorist endings, and verbs with the null infix) the following endings: -ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, -ǫ; -ově, -eta, -ete.

Sigmatic aorist

The sigmatic or s-aorist was formed in the following ways:

Verbs whose stem ends in b, p, d, t, z, s form this aorist by dropping the final consonant and adding the interfix -s- plus the endings -ъ, -, -; -omъ, -te, -ę; -ově, -ta, -te. Intervocalic sigma (s) exhibits no change. As a side effect, e is lengthened to ě, and o to a.

Verbs whose stem ends in r or k form this aorist in the same way as previously mentioned, except that intervocalic sigma (s) changes into x, the same set of endings being suffixed to the interfix. As a side effect, e is lengthened to ě, and o to a.

Verbs whose stem ends in a vowel form this aorist by suffixing exactly the same set of endings to the infinitive stem, and intervocalic -s- changes into -x-.

The 2nd and 3rd person singular forms of these verbs match the infinitive stem due to the elision of word-final sigma.

New aorist

The new aorist (also known as ox-aorist) is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem of e-type verbs ending in a consonant (verbs with the interfix -nǫ- and verbs with the null interfix) the interfix -os- (-ox) and onto it the endings -ъ, -, -; -omъ, -te, -ę; -ově, -ta, -te. Intervocalic sigma s changes into x.

The 2nd and the 3rd person singular forms are not attested and thus the asigmatic aorist forms are taken as a replacement.

Imperfect

There are two ways of forming the imperfect:

1. If the infinitive stems ends in -a or -ě, the interfix -ax- is appended (which changes to -aš- according to the first palatalization in front of e) and onto it, the endings of the asigmatic aorist: -ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, -ǫ; -ově, -eta, -ete.

2. The other way of forming the imperfect, applying to all other verbal stems, is by adding onto the present stem the interfix -ěax- (which, in accordance with the first palatalization, is changed to -ěaš- in front of e) and onto it the endings of asigmatic aorist: -ъ, -e, -e; -omъ, -ete, -ǫ; -ově, -eta, -ete.

Both of these imperfect formations often occur side by side in verbs with stem alternation:

bьrati (bьra-; ber-) > bьraaxъ or berěaxъ

gъnati (gъna-; žen-) > gъnaaxъ or ženěaxъ

plьvati (plьva-; pljuj-) > plьvaaxъ or pljujěaxъ

zъvati (zъva-; zov-) > zъvaaxъ or zověaxъ

In the texts of the OCS canon the forms are often contracted, so that ěax becomes ěx and aax becomes ax. An illustrating example is in Chernorizets Hrabar's famous work O pismenex "An Account of Letters":

Prěžde ubo slověne ne iměxǫ knigъ, nǫ črъtami i rězami čьtěxǫ i gataaxǫ, pogani sǫšte.

Some forms exhibit sound changes, namely palatalization or iotation in front of ě, yat thus turning into a. The same applies if the stem ends in j which is then reduced in front of yat and yat again changes into a:

xvaliti (xval-) > xval + ě + axъ > xvaljaaxъ

nositi (nos-) > nos + ě + axъ > nošaaxъ

pešti (pek-) > pek + ě + axъ > pečaaxъ

čuti (čuj-) > čuj + ě + axъ > čujaaxъ

That the second form and not the first is the original one (the first being formed by the change of yat to a) is confirmed by the imperfect paradigm of the verb byti:

Present active participle

The present active participle is formed by adding the following endings to the present stem:

1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:

present stem + -y (masculine and neuter) and -ǫšti (feminine)

(e.g., greti (greb-) > greby; grebǫšti)

2. e-type verbs whose present stem ends in a palatal:

present stem + -ę (masculine and neuter) and -ǫšti (feminine)

(e.g., kupovati (kupuj-) > kupuję, kupujǫšti)

3. i-type verbs:

present stem + -ę (masculine and neuter) and -ęšti (feminine)

(e.g., ljubiti (ljub-) > ljubę, ljubęšti)

Present passive participle

The present passive participle is formed by suffixing to the present stem the endings -o/e/i + m + ъ/a/o (masculine, feminine, neuter):

1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:

present stem + o + m + ъ/a/o

(e.g., pešti (pek-) > pekomъ, pekoma, pekomo)

2. e-type verbs whose stem ends in a palatal:

present stem + e + m + ъ/a/o

(e.g., želeti (želj-) > željemъ, željema, željemo)

3. i-type verbs:

present stem + i + m + ъ/a/o

(e.g., xvaliti (xval-) > xvalimъ, xvalima, xvalimo)

Past active participle

The past active participle is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem the following endings:

1. e-type verbs and athematic verbs:

infinitive stem + -ъ (masculine and neuter) or -ъši (feminine)

(e.g., bosti (bod-) > bodъ, bodъši)

2. i-type verbs exhibit epenthetic v, which eliminates hiatus:

infinitive stem + -vъ (masculine and neuter) or -vъši (feminine)

(e.g., xvaliti (xvali-) > xvalivъ, xvalivъši)

The latter i-type verbs have twofold forms of this participle - the mentioned one of older origin, and a newer one which arose due to analogical leveling:

nositi (nosi-) > nošъ, nošъši (by iotation from + jъ, jъši) or nosivъ, nosivъši

roditi (rod-) > roždъ, roždъši (by iotation from + jъ, jъši) or rodivъ, rodivъši

3. Verbs with liquid metathesis form this participle from its older stem form:

mrěti (< *merti) > mьrъ, mьrъši (and not mrěvъ, mrěvъši)

prostrěti (< *prosterti) > prostьrъ, prostьrъši (and not prostrěvъ, prostrěvъši)

4. Irregular participles:

iti > šьdъ, šьdъši

jaxati > javъ, javъši

l-participle

The l-participle (also known as the resultative participle or second past active participle) is formed by adding to the infinitive stem the interfix -l- and the endings ъ/a/o. If the stem ends in -t or -d, this consonant is dropped.

xvaliti (xvali) > xvalilъ, xvalila, xvalilo

plesti (plet-) > plelъ, plela, plelo

Past passive participle

The past passive participle is formed by suffixing to the infinitive stem the following endings:

1. Verbs with stem ending in a consonant, -y or -i:

infinitive stem + en + ъ/a/o

(e.g., bosti (bod-) > bodenъ, bodena, bodeno) (e.g., nositi (nosi-) > nošenъ, nošena, nošeno - by iotation from nosi + enъ > nosjenъ > nošenъ) (e.g., umyti with interfix -ъv- > umъvenъ, umъvena, umъveno)

2. Verbs with stem ending in -a or -ě:

infinitive stem + n + ъ/a/o

(e.g., glagolati (glagola-) > glagolanъ, glagolana, glagolano) (e.g., viděti (vidě-) > vižden, viždena, viždeno - by iotation from viděn, viděna, viděno)

3. Verbs with stem ending in -ę, -u, -i and -ě (obtained by liquid metathesis):

infinitive stem + t + ъ/a/o

(e.g., klęti (klę-) > klętъ, klęta, klęto) (e.g., obuti (obu-) > obutъ, obuta, obuto) (e.g., mrěti (mrě-) > mrětъ, mrěta, mrěto) (e.g., viti (vi-) > vitъ, vita, vito)

Of the latter verbs, those with stem ending in -i (viti, biti etc.) can also form the past passive participle like the verbs in the first group: bitъ or bijenъ, vitъ or vijenъ etc.).

Perfect

The perfect is formed by combining the l-participle with the imperfective present forms of the auxiliary verb byti.

nosilъ/a/o jesmь, jesi, jestъ

nosili/y/a jesmъ, jeste, sǫtь

nosila/ě/ě jesvě, jesta, jeste

Pluperfect

The pluperfect can be formed in multiple ways, by combining the l-participle with the perfect, imperfect or aorist formation of the auxiliary verb byti.

nosilъ/a/o bylъ/a/o jesmь or běaxъ or běxъ

nosili/y/a byli/y/a jesmъ or běaxomъ or běxomъ

nosila/ě/ě byla/ě/ě jesvě or běaxově or běxově

Future

The future tense is usually expressed using the present tense form of the perfective verb. Imperfective verbs form the future tense by combining the auxiliary verb (byti, xotěti, načęti, iměti) and the infinitive.

bǫdǫ / xoštǫ / načьnǫ / imamь xvaliti

Future perfect

The future perfect is formed by combining the l-participle with the perfective present of the auxiliary verb byti.

nosilъ/a/o bǫdǫ, bǫdeši, bǫdetъ

nosili/y/a bǫdemъ, bǫdete, bǫdǫtъ

nosila/ě/ě bǫdevě, bǫdeta, bǫdete

Conditional

The conditional (or conditional-optative) modal formation is formed by combining the l-participle with special modal forms of the auxiliary verb byti (with unattested dual forms):

nosilъ/a/o bimь, bi, bi

nosili/y/a bimъ, biste, bǫ/bišę

An alternative conditional is formed with the perfective aorist forms of byti:

nosilъ/a/o byxъ, by, by

nosili/y/a byxomъ, byste, byšę

Primary adverbs

These are original adverbs with difficult to guess etymology and origin.

abьje (abije) = right away

jedъva = hardly, barely

ješte = yet, still

nyně = now, today

paky = again, back

(j)uže = already

Pronominal adverbs

Pronominal adverbs are derived by suffixing pronouns (e.g., ov + amo = ovamo, kъ + de = kъde):

-amo = direction of movement (tamo, kamo, onamo)

-ako / -ače = way, mode, manner (tako, inako, inače)

-de = place (sьde, onude, vьsьde)

-gda = time (tъgda, kъgda, egda)

-lь / -li / / -lě / -lьma / -lьmi = measure, amount (kolь, kolě, kolьmi)

Nominal adverbs

Nominal adverbs are derived from nominals or turn by conversion to adverbs which are in fact inflective lexemes with adverbial semantics.

Modal adverbs are created with the suffixes -o or -ě (the endings of accusative and locative singular neuter gender respectively), with no difference in meanings between suffixes, although some adverbs have only the forms in -o (veselo), and some in -ě (javě).

Modal adverbs could also be formed deadjectivally by means of the interfix -ьsk- and the ending -y (by origin, the instrumental plural ending; e.g., slověnьsky).

Adverbs could also be formed with the suffix -ь (pravь, različь) and are by origin probably inherited Proto-Slavic accusative forms.

Frequently occurring are the adverbialized a-stem instrumentals such as jednьnojǫ and also adverbially used oblique cases.

Locative adverbs are by origin mostly petrified locative case forms of nouns: gorě, dolě, nizu, and the same can be said for temporal adverbs: zimě, polu dьne.

Primary prepositions

The primary and non-derived prepositions are of PIE and PSl. heritage:

bez "without" + G

iz or is "from, out" + G izdrǫky < iz rǫky — from the hand

kъ "to, for, unto" + D ..reče že Marθa kъ Iisusu.. — and Martha said unto Jesus

na "on, to, upon" + A (denoting direction) or L (denoting place) zlijašę ognь na zemьjǫ — they poured fire on earth

nadъ "on, upon, over" + A (denoting direction) or I (denoting place) nadъ glavǫ — over the head

o or ob "over, round, about" + A (denoting direction) or L (denoting place) ob noštь vьsǫ — the whole night through

otъ "from, away" + G otъ nebese — from heaven

po originally "under, below" + D (extension in space), A (extension in space or time) or L (temporal and local) po vьsę grady — through all towns po tomь že — after that po morjǫ xodę — walking over the sea

podъ "under, beneath" + A (denoting direction) or I (denoting situation, location) podъ nogy, podъ nogama — under the feet

pri "at, at the time" + L pri vraƷěxъ — among the heathen

prědъ "in front of, before" + A (denoting direction) or I (denoting situation) prědъ gradomь — in the vicinity of the city

sъ "for the extent of" + A, "from, off, away" + G, "with" + I (denoting association, not instrument) sъ lakъtь — a cubit long sъ nebese — down from heaven sъ nimь — with him

u "at, in" + G u dvьrьcь — at the doors

vъ "in" + A (denoting direction) or L (denoting place) vъ tъ dьnь — that day vъ kupě — together

vъz or vъs "for, in exchange for" + A vъs kǫjǫ — why?

za "for, after, behind" + A (denoting direction), I (denoting place) or G (in the sense "because") ęti za vlasy — to seize by the hair

Secondary prepositions

The secondary prepositions are derived from adverbial expressions: vьslědъ from vь slědъ, prěžde is a comparative form of prědъ etc.

Conjunctions and particles

Conjunctions and particles are not easily separable because they sometimes function as an intensifier, and sometimes as a conjunction.

a, ali "but" - (proclitic), setting two parts of a statement in opposition

ako, jako, ěko "that, so that, how, when, as" - (proclitic) introducing indirect or direct speech; highly context-dependent

ašte "if, whether" - (proclitic) a conditional particle, also used to generalize relative pronouns

bo "for, because" - (enclitic) denoting caustive relationships (i + bo = ibo, u + bo = ubo)

da "in order that" - (proclitic) introducing final result

i "and; even, too" - (proclitic) connecting clauses or used as an adverb within a clause

ide "for, since" - (proclitic)

jegda, jegdaže "when, if" - (proclitic)

jeda "surely not" - (proclitic), introducing a question expecting a negative answer

li "or", li...li "either... or" - (proclitic or enclitic) generally when forming a question; when enclitic, usually a direct question, when proclitic, taking the meaning "or"

ne "not", ne...ni "neither... nor" - ne generally occurs before the negated item, occurring usually once in the main clause, but ni may occur several times in the same clause

nъ "but" - (proclitic) connecting two clauses

to "then, so" - (proclitic) correlative to ašte

že "on the other hand, or, and" - (enclitic) the commonest particle functioning both as an intensifier and a conjunction; often bound to pronouns and adverbs (jakože, nikъto že)