Lao is generally a subject–verb–object language, but emphasis can move the object to the beginning of a sentence. The language lacks both agreement and case marking, but word order is very free, with predicate-argument relations determined largely through context. Lao is a right-branching language, much like other Southeast Asian languages and, to a lesser extent, Romance languages.
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Politeness
Since Lao culture is stratified based on the age, occupation, wealth or clout of the speaker, one must afford differing amounts of respect based on the discrepancy between one person and another. That affects language as well; to make language more polite, more formal language, including of pronouns (which can otherwise be dropped) and more formal versions of them, and sentence-ending particles can be used. Also, ending particles also serve to soften and make one's speech more polite.
In addition to ending most general statements and the softening of imperatives and requests, it is also used to intensify the meaning (especially of adjectives and adverbs) more politely, to make the use of demonstrative pronouns more polite, or to indicate a certain amount or some extent of something.
They are used as a more intensive version of ແດ່, thus giving requests and demands more urgency and are used for statements that tend to be more emphatic. They are, therefore, not as polite. ເດ also has the sense of and what about or to indicate an equivalent to this as a demonstrative pronoun.
Nouns
Nouns are not marked for plurality, gender, or declension but may be single or plural. Unlike in English, nouns are not marked with articles. Measure words or classifiers (ລັກສະນະນາມ, laksana naam /lāksáʔnāʔ náːm/) are often used to express plurals, as classifiers must be used to count objects, but the noun itself remains unchanged.
Verbs of physical action are easily converted into nouns by adding ການ (kan /kaːn/) before the verb. Abstract actions and adjectives use ຄວາມ (khwam /kʰuáːm/) instead.
Pronouns
Pronouns (ສັບພະນາມ, sap pha nam /sáp pʰāʔ náːm/) are often dropped in informal contexts and replaced with nicknames or kinship terms, depending on the relation of the speaker spoken to (sometimes even spoken about). Pronouns can change based on register of speech, including the obsolete royal and the formal, informal and vulgar. In more formal language, pronouns are more often retained and more formal ones used. Pronouns can be pluralized by adding ພວກ (phuak /pʰuak/) in front: ພວກເຈົ້າ (/pʰuak.tɕao/) for "you plural". Age and status determine usage. Younger children's names are often prefixed with ບັກ (bak /bak/) and ອີ (i /ʔiː/), respectively. Slightly older children are addressed to or have their names prefixed wirh ອ້າຍ (ai /ʔaj/) and ເອື້ອຍ (èw-ai /ʔɯːâj/), respectively, but ພີ່ (phi /pʰīː/) is also common. Much older people may be politely dressed as aunt, uncle, mother, father, or even grandmother or grandfather, depending on their age. In a company setting, one's title is often used.
Verbs
Lao verbs (ກະຣິຍາ, kaligna /káʔrīɲáː/) are not conjugated for tense, mood, or pronoun. Tense is indicated by using time reference words, such as yesterday, next year, just now or by certain particles. Nouns that begin with ການ (kan /kaːn/) or ຄວາມ (khwam /kʰuáːm/), often nominalised verbs, become verbs again when those particles are dropped.
Copula
Lao has two forms of the verb to be, ເປັນ (pèn /pen/) and ແມ່ນ (maen /mɛ̄ːn/) which are somewhat interchangeable. As a general rule, the latter is not used to describe people.
Nok is a doctor.
Literally: Nok + be (v) + doctor.
That is not a boat.
Literally: That + not + be (v) + boat.
Tense
In a general, short Lao sentence, the verb is often not marked for tense and can be taken from context, with words such as yesterday, tomorrow, later, etc. If the subject of when the events occurred is already known, they can also be left out and inferred from dialogue. However, there are several ways to mark tense in Lao:
Past
The most common way to indicate a completed action is to end a statement with ແລ້ວ (lèw /lɛ̂ːu/). That can also be used to indicate events that occurred in the recent past. One can also use the particle ໄດ້ (dai /dâj/) proceeding the verb, alone or in conjunction with ແລ້ວ, although this is less common and often used in negative statements and never for a continuous action.
The goat (just) came down from the mountain.
The goat did not come down from the mountain.
Future
There are two markers used to indicate actions to be completed in the future, ຊິ (si /sī/) and ຈະ (cha /tʃáʔ/). Both of these always precede the verb. To indicate that something is just about to happen, one can say ກຳລັງຈະ (kamlang cha /kamláŋ tʃáʔ/).
The farmer will eat sticky rice.
The farmer will eat sticky rice.
The farmer is just about to eat sticky rice.
Progressive
Although no particle is generally needed to mark a present progressive statement, Lao uses three, ພວມ (phuam /pʰuáːm/) and ກຳລັງ (kamlang /kamláŋ/) before the verb, ຢູ່ (yu /jūː/) after it.
The baby is (still/currently) sleeping.
The baby is (still/currently) sleeping.
The baby is (still/currently) sleeping.
Modal verbs
Modal or auxiliary verbs (ວິກະຕິກິລິຍາ, vikatikiligna) are verbs that serve auxiliary function, such as want, obligation or need like English ought to, should, must, can, etc.
Obligation
ຄວນ (khouan /kʰuán/) Should, ought to
They should speak with the governor.
Literally: They (formal) + should + speak + with + governor.
You ought to nop (bow) when Mr. Smith comes inside.
Literally: you + should + bow (v) + when + mister + Smith + enter+come (v).
Need
ຕ້ອງ (tong /tɔ̂ːŋ/) to need, must.
When the need is a noun, ຕ້ອງການ (tong kan /tɔ̂ːŋ kàːn/) is used instead.
Today, I must till the fields.
Literally: Day + this must+go (v) + do (v) + field.
The jeweller needs gold.
Literally: Jeweller + must+ການ (v) + gold.
Want
ຢາກ, yak /jȁːk/, to want, to desire
Used to express a want or desire. When this is a noun, then the form ຢາກໄດ້ (yak dai /jȁːk dâj/) or the common verb ເອົາ (ao /aw/) is used instead, but the latter is not as polite.
Older sister wants to go to Vientiane.
Literally: Older Sister + want + go + Vientiane.‹See TfD›
Older sister wants a husband from Vientiane.
Literally: Older sister + want+ໄດ້ + husband + Vientiane.
I want one dish of papaya salad without padaek.
Literally: Want (v) + papaya salad + classifier + one + no + add (v) + Lao fish sauce.
Can, be able to
ໄດ້ (dai /dâj/) to get, to have, to be able to
That is used to indicate the ability to do something. It is the closest Lao word for the English verb can and in requests when English speakers would use may. When used in that sense, it follows the verb; before the verb, the meaning changes to to get or to have.
The old man can walk fifteen kilometres.
Literally: Old man + walk (v) + fifteen + kilometer + can (v).
May I help you?
Literally: I + help (v) + you (formal) + can + interrogative.
ເປັນ (pèn /pen/) to be, to be able to
In addition to being a verb for the copula, it can also be used to indicate that one can do something because of knowing how to do it.
The Frenchman (can/knows how to) speak the Lao language.
Literally: Person + French + speak (v) + language + Lao + language + can
The court dancer (can/knows how to) play the lute.
Literally: Court dancer + play (v) + lute + can + also.
ສາມາດ (samat /sǎːmâːt/) to be able to, to be possible
It functions much like can but with the sense of being physically possible to do.
The boy cannot lift a water buffalo.
Literally: Child + boy + not + can + lift (v) + classifier + water buffalo + upward.
Enter, join
ເຂົ້າ, khao /kʰàw/, to enter, to join, to participate
Used to indicate movement from one place to another inside, such as a house or building.
We go into house.
Literally: We + enter+go + house.
Recipiency
ໃຫ້, hai /hàj/ to give, to permit, to let
Used to indicate that the verb is intended for someone or something else or to express a desire, a wish, or a command.
I wish (to/for) you good luck.
Literally: request+give + have + luck + good.
This flower I want (to/for) you to have it.
Literally: Flower + rose + this + want+give + you + have.
Affirmation and negation
To say no is as simple as saying ບໍ່ (bo /bɔ̄ː/), and negation simply involves placing that word in front of the verb, adjective, adverb, or noun to be negated. To say yes, especially to indicate that one ia listening, one uses ໂດຽ (doi /dòːj/), especially in formal situations, or ເຈົ້າ (chao /tʃâw/). To answer a question, one often repeats the verb of action that was used in the question to indicate that that action was or will be completed. One can also use ແມ່ນ (mén /mɛ̄ːn/), especially if the question had ແມ່ນ, as an element of the interrogative particle.
Adverbs and adjectives
Little distinction can be made between adjectives and adverbs, as any adjective that could logically be used to modify a verb can also be used as an adverb. They are often duplicated to indicate a superlative and can even be modified like verbs, mainly by the lack of a copula to link the object and adjective/adverb. Adjectives come after the noun.
A slow elephant.
Go to the village slowly.
A lady who becomes pretty quickly.
A boy who will be handsome.
Equivalence, comparatives, and superlatives
To indicate that something is the same, one uses ຄືກັນ (khu kan /kʰɯ́ː kan/). To indicate that one is similar to something else, one uses ຄືກັບ (khu kap /kʰɯ́ː káp/).
The Lao language and the Isan languare are the same.
Chinese cuisine is not the same as Lao cuisine.
Comparatives take the form "A ກວ່າ (kwa /kuāː/) B", or A is more than B. The superlative is expressed by "A ທີ່ສຸດ (thisut /tʰīːsút/)", or A is the best. All adjectives can be altered in this way:
The teacher is smarter than the student.
That lady is the prettiest.
Questions
Lao uses special tag words at the beginning or the end of the sentence to indicate a question so the modern use of the question mark (?) redundant.
Yes-no questions end in ບໍ່ (bo /bɔ̄ː/), but Lao also has other sentence interrogative finals that indicate whether or not the speaker expects an answer, knows the answer to be expected, will be surprised, or is rhetorically asking a question, but they are generally used only in conversational settings.
Are you well?
Other common interrogatives
Who? ຜູ້ໃດ (phoudai /pʰȕːdàj/) and its common short form ໃຜ (phai /pʰǎj/)
Who sells chicken eggs?
Literally: Who [interrogative] + sell (v) + egg + chicken.
Who left for Champassak?
Literally: Who [interrogative] + leave for (v) + Champassak.
What? ຈັ່ງໃດ (changdai /tʃāŋdàj/) and its common short form ຫຽັງ (gnang /ɲǎŋ/)
What does Uncle want to watch?
Literally: Uncle + want (v) + watch (v) + what [interrogative].
What are you doing?
Literally: Do (v) + what [interrogative].
Where? ໃສ (sai /săj/)
Where is Luang Phrabang?
Literally: Luang Phrabang + to be at (v) + where [interrogative].
When? ເມື່ອໃດ (mua dai /mɨ̄aː dàj/), and many others.
There are numerous ways to ask when something will occur, many of which are formed by adding ໃດ (dai /dàj/) which after a noun marking time, e.g., ເວລາໃດ (vela dai /véːláː dàj/), ຍາມໃດ (gnam dai /ɲáːm dàj/), and ປານໃດ (pan dai /pàːndài/).
When will you go to Pakxe?
Literally: When [interrogative] + future tense particle + go (v) + Pakxe.
Why? ເປັນຈັ່ງໃດ (pen changdai /pen tʃāŋdàj/)
The phrase by itself can also mean What's wrong?, but can also ask why or for what reason a condition is occurring.
Why is the fisherman really sad?
Literally: Why [interrogative] + fisherman + sad + really.
How?
ແນວໃດ (nèw dai /nɛ́ːw dàj/)
There are numerous ways to ask how?, some interchangeable with Lao equivalents for what? and why? but in the sense of how something is accomplished or done, one can also use ເຊັ່ນໃດ (sen dai /sēn dàj/), ຢ່າງໃດ (yang dai /jāːŋ dàj/) or ດັ່ງໃດ (dang dai /dāŋ dàj/).
How does one do it?
Literally: Do (v) + how [interrogative].
How Much/Many? (General Things) ຈັກ (chak /tʃák/)
How many people attend the baisi ceremony?
Literally: Now + here [right now] + how many + people + go (v) + baisi ceremony.
How Much? (Price) ເທົ່າໃດ (thao dai /tʰāw dàj/) or its variant ທໍ່ໃດ (tho dai /tʰɔ̄ː dàj/)
How much is this red skirt?
Literally: Skirt + colour + red + this + how much [interrogative]?
Right? Correct? ແມ່ນບໍ່ (mèn bo /mɛ̄ːn bɔ̄ː/)
The Dragon is in the Mekong, right?
Literally: Dragon + inhabit + river + Mekong + correct [interrogative].
Already? Yet? ແລ້ວບໍ່ (lèw bo /lɛ̂ːw bɔ̄ː/)
Have you eaten yet?
Literally: eat + rice + yet interrogative.
Or not? ຫຼືບໍ່ (lu bo /lɯ̀ bɔ̄ː/)
Does older brother want a good wife or not?
Literally: Older brother + want+ໄດ້ + wife + good + or not [interrogative].
Eh? ຫຼື (lu /lɯ̀/)
This is a rather informal interrogative particle equivalent to English eh? or hmm? or huh?.
You okay, huh?
Literally: Be well (v) + huh [interrogative].
Answers to questions usually just involve repetition of the verb and any nouns for clarification.
Words asked with a negative can be confusing and should be avoided. The response, even without the negation, will still be negated by the nature of the question.
Classifiers
Classifiers (ລັກສະນະນາມ, laksananam /lāksáʔnāʔnáːm/) are used for when referring to a number of things, either a group or a finite amount. Classifiers can be used in place of the counted noun when context makes it sufficient. There are many classifiers, which is daunting, and it is better to double the noun or the more common ones such as ທີ່ (thi /tʰīː/) or ໂຕ (to /toː/). For single items, the classifier comes before the number; for more, the classifier comes after it.
One bottle of beer.
(Literally: Beer + classifier + one)
Two bottles of beer.
(Literally: Beer + two + classifier)
The classifiers can sometimes be used in place of the nouns they group in context.
There were two dogs in the village. The dogs bit older brother.
(Literally: Have + dog + two + classifier + in + village. Classifier + bite + older brother)
Possession
To indicate that object X belongs to object Y, Lao uses the construction X ຂອງ Y. ຂອງ (khong /kʰɔ̌ːŋ/) can also be omitted without changing the meaning.
A horse's mane.
Literally: Mane + [possession particle] + horse or Mane + horse.