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Dutch phonology is similar to that of other West Germanic languages.
Contents
Consonants
The following table shows the consonant phonemes of Dutch:
Obstruents
Sonorants
The final 'n' of the ending -en (originally /ən/, with a variety of meanings) is not pronounced in many areas unless when one stresses the word, which makes those words homophonous with forms without the -n. It is dropped both word-finally and word-internally in compound words. The pronunciation can be morphologically sensitive and can distinguish words, as the -n is dropped only when it is part of the distinct ending -en but not when the word has a single stem ending in -en. Thus, the word teken ('I draw') always retains its -n because it is part of an indivisible stem whereas in teken ('ticks') it is dropped because it is a plural ending. These words are, therefore, not homophones in dialects that drop -n despite being spelled identically.
Final -n is retained in the North East (Low Saxon) and the South West (East and West Flemish), where it is the schwa that disappears instead. This creates a syllabic [n] or (after velars) syllabic [ŋ] sounds: laten [ˈlaːtn̩]; maken [ˈmaːkŋ̍]. Some Low Saxon dialects that have uvular pronunciations of /ɣ/ and /x/ (or one of them) also have a syllabic uvular nasal, like in lagen and/or lachen [ˈlaːχɴ̩]
Final devoicing and assimilation
Dutch devoices all obstruents at the ends of words, as is partly reflected in the spelling. The voiced "z" in plural huizen [ˈɦœy̑zə] becomes huis [ɦœy̑s] ('house') in singular. Also, duiven [ˈdœy̑və] becomes duif [dœy̑f] ('dove'). The other cases are always written with the voiced consonant, but a devoiced one is actually pronounced: the "d" in plural baarden [ˈbaːrdə] is retained in singular spelling baard ('beard'), but the pronunciation of the latter is [baːrt], and plural ribben [ˈrɪbə] has singular rib ('rib'), pronounced [rɪp].
Because of assimilation, the initial /v z ɣ/ of the next word is often also devoiced: het vee ('the cattle') is [(ɦ)ət feː]. The opposite may be true for other consonants: ik ben ('I am') [ɪg bɛn].
Vowels
Dutch has an extensive vowel inventory consisting of at least twelve plain vowels and at least three diphthongs. Vowels can be grouped as back rounded, front unrounded and front rounded. They are also traditionally distinguished by length or tenseness. The vowels /eː øː oː/ are included in the diphthong chart further below because many dialects realize them as diphthongs, but they behave phonologically like the other long monophthongs.
Monophthongs
Vowel length is not always considered a distinctive feature in Dutch phonology, because it normally co-occurs with changes in vowel quality. One feature or the other may be considered redundant, and some phonemic analyses prefer to treat it as an opposition of tenseness. However, even if not considered part of the phonemic opposition, the long/tense vowels are still realised as phonetically longer than their short counterparts. The changes in vowel quality are also not always the same in all dialects, and in so dialects, there may be little difference at all, with length remaining the primary distinguishing feature. Although older words always pair vowel length with a change in vowel quality, new loanwords have reintroduced phonemic oppositions of length. Compare zonne(n) /ˈzɔnə(n)/ ('suns') versus zone /ˈzɔːnə/ ('zone') versus zonen /ˈzoːnə(n)/ ('sons'), or kroes /krus/ ('mug') versus cruise /kruːs/ ('cruise').
Notes:
Several dialects have retained the distinction between the so-called "sharp-long" and "soft-long" e and o, a distinction that dates to early Middle Dutch. The sharp-long varieties originate from the Old Dutch long ē and ō (Proto-Germanic ai and au), while the soft-long varieties arose from short i/e and u/o that were lengthened in open syllables in early Middle Dutch. The distinction is not preserved in most modern Standard Dutch pronunciations and is not recognised in educational materials, but it is still present in many local dialects, such as Antwerpian, West Flemish and Zealandic. In these dialects, the sharp-long vowels are often opening diphthongs such as [ɪə̯] and [ʊə̯], while the soft-long vowels are either plain monophthongs [eː] and [oː] or slightly closing [eɪ̯] and [oʊ̯].
Diphthongs
Dutch also has several diphthongs. All of them end in a close vowel (/i̯ y̑ u̯/), but they may begin with a variety of other vowels. They are grouped here by their former element.
Stress
Most native Germanic words (the bulk of the core vocabulary) are stressed on the root syllable, which is usually the first syllable of the word. Germanic words may also be stressed on the second or later syllable if certain unstressed prefixes are added (particularly in verbs). Non-root stress is common in loanwords, which are generally borrowed with the stress placement unchanged. In polysyllabic words, secondary stress may also be present. Certain prefixes and suffixes will receive secondary stress: /ˌvoːrˈkoːmə(n)/, /ˈʋeːrˌloːs/. The stressed syllable of a word receive secondary stress within a compound word: /ˈbɔmˌmɛldɪŋ/, /ˈɑlkoːɦɔl pɛrsɛnˌtaːʒə/.
The vast majority of compound nouns are stressed on the first element: appeltaart /ˈɑpəlˌtaːrt/, luidspreker /ˈlœytˌspreːkər/.
While stress is phonemic, minimal pairs are rare, and marking the stress in written Dutch is always optional, but it is sometimes recommended to distinguish homographs that differ only in stress. The most common practice is to distinguish een (indefinite article, which, as a clitic, bears no stress) from één (the cardinal number one). It also distinguishes some verbs, as stress placement on prefixes also carries a grammatical distinction, such as in vóórkomen ('to occur') and voorkómen ('to prevent'). In vóórkomen and other verbs with a stressed prefix, the prefix is separable and separates as kom voor in the first-person singular present, with the past participle vóórgekomen. On the other hand, verbs with an unstressed prefix are not separable: voorkómen becomes voorkóm in the first-person singular present, and voorkómen in the past participle, without the past participle prefix ge-.
Dutch has a strong stress accent like other Germanic languages, and it uses stress timing because of its relatively complex syllable structure. It has a preference for trochaic rhythm, with relatively stronger and weaker stress alternating between syllables in such a way that syllables with stronger stress are produced at a more or less constant pace. Generally, every alternate syllable before and after the primary stress will receive relative stress, as far secondary stress placements allow: Wá.gə.nì.ngən. Relative stress preferably does not fall on /ə/ so syllables containing /ə/ may disrupt the trochaic rhythm. To restore the pattern, vowels are often syncopated in speech: kín.də.rən > /ˈkɪn.drə(n)/, há.ri.ngən > /ˈɦaːr.ŋə(n)/, vər.gə.líj.king > /vər.ˈɣlɛi.kɪŋ/. In words for which the secondary stress is imposed lexically onto the syllable immediately following the stressed syllable, a short pause is often inserted after the stressed syllable to maintain the rhythm to ensure that the stressed syllable has more or less equal length to the trochaic unit following it: bóm..mèl.ding, wéér..lò.zə.
Historically, the stress accent has reduced most vowels in unstressed syllables to [ə], as in most other Germanic languages. This process is still somewhat productive, and it is common to reduce vowels to [ə] in syllables carrying neither primary nor secondary stress, particularly in syllables that are relatively weakly stressed due to the trochaic rhythm. Weakly stressed long vowels may also be shortened without any significant reduction in vowel quality. For example, politie (phonemically /poːˈlitsi/) may be pronounced [poˈli(t)si], [pəˈli(t)si] or even [ˈpli(t)si].
Phonotactics
The syllable structure of Dutch is (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C). Many words, as in English, begin with three consonants such as straat (street). Words that end in four consonants are mostly superlative adjectives.
Historic sound changes
Dutch (with the exception of the Limburg dialects) did not participate in the second Germanic consonant shift except for the last stage:
Dutch generalised the fricative variety of Proto-Germanic */ɡ/ as [ɣ] or [ʝ], in contrast with German, which generalised the stop [ɡ], and English, which lost the fricative variety through regular sound changes.
Dutch also underwent a few changes on its own:
Sample
The sample text is a reading of The North Wind and the Sun.
Netherlandic
The phonetic transcription illustrates a Western Netherlandic, educated, middle-generation speech and a careful colloquial style.
Phonemic transcription
/də ˈnoːrdə(n)ʋɪnt ɛn də ˈzɔn | ɦɑdə(n) ən dɪsˈkʏsi oːvər də ˈvraːx | ˈʋi vɑn ɦʏn ˈtʋeːə(n) də ˈstɛrkstə ʋɑs | tun ɛr ˈjœy̑st imɑnt voːrˈbɛi̯ kʋɑm | di ən ˈdɪkə ˈʋɑrmə ˈjɑs aːnɦɑt || zə spraːkə(n) ˈɑf | dɑt ʋi də voːrbɛi̯ɣɑŋər daːrtu zɑu̯ ˈkrɛi̯ɣə(n) zən jɑs œy̑t tə ˈtrɛkə(n) | də ˈstɛrkstə zɑu̯ zɛi̯n || də ˈnoːrdə(n)ʋɪnt bəɣɔn œy̑t ˈɑlə mɑxt tə ˈblaːzə(n) | maːr ɦu ˈɦɑrdər i ˈblis | dɛs tə ˈdɪxtər də voːrbɛi̯ɣɑŋər zən jɑs ɔm zɪx ˈɦeːn trɔk || tɛnˈslɔtə ɣɑf də noːrdə(n)ʋɪnt ət maːr ˈɔp || vɛrˈvɔlɣəns bəɣɔn də ˈzɔn | ˈkrɑxtəx tə ˈstraːlə(n) | ɛn ɔnˈmɪdələk daːˈrɔp | trɔk də voːrbɛi̯ɣɑŋər zən ˈjɑs œy̑t || də ˈnoːrdə(n)ʋɪnt kɔn tun slɛxts bəˈaːmə(n) | dɑt də ˈzɔn də ˈstɛrkstə ʋɑs/
Phonetic transcription
[də ˈnoə̯ɾdəʋɪnt ɛn də ˈzɔn | ɦɑdə ən dɪsˈkʏsi oʊ̯vəɾ də ˈfɾaːχ | ˈʋi fɑn ɦʏn ˈtʋeɪ̯ə də ˈstɛɾəkstə ʋɑs | tun əɾ ˈjœy̑st imɑnt foə̯ɾˈbɛi̯ kʋɑm | di ən ˈdɪkə ˈʋɑɾmə ˈjɑs aːnɦɑt || zə spɾaːkə ˈɑf | dɑt ʋi də foə̯ɾbɛi̯χɑŋəɾ dəɾtu zʌu̯ ˈkɾɛi̯χə zəɲ ˈjɑs œy̑ tə tɾɛkə | də ˈstɛɾəkstə zʌu̯ zɛi̯n || də ˈnoə̯ɾdəʋɪnt bəχɔn œy̑t ˈɑlə mɑχ tə ˈblaːzə || maːɾ u ˈɦɑɾdəɾ i ˈblis | dɛs tə ˈdɪχtəɾ də foə̯ɾbɛi̯χɑŋəɾ zəɲ jɑz ɔm zɪχ ˈɦeɪ̯n tɾɔk || tənˈslɔtə χɑf tə noə̯ɾdəʋɪnt ət maːɾ ˈɔp || fəɾˈfɔlχənz bəχɔn də ˈzɔn | ˈkɾɑχtəχ tə ˈstɾaːlə | ɛn ɔˈmɪdələk daːˈɾɔp | tɾɔk tə foə̯ɾbɛi̯χɑŋəɾ zəɲ ˈjɑz œy̑t || də ˈnoə̯ɾdəʋɪnt kɔn tun slɛχs bəˈʔaːmə | dɑtə ˈzɔn də ˈstɛɾəkstə ʋɑs]
Orthographic version
De noordenwind en de zon hadden een discussie over de vraag wie van hun tweeën de sterkste was, toen er juist iemand voorbijkwam die een dikke, warme jas aanhad. Ze spraken af dat wie de voorbijganger ertoe zou krijgen zijn jas uit te trekken de sterkste zou zijn. De noordenwind begon uit alle macht te blazen, maar hoe harder hij blies, des te dichter de voorbijganger zijn jas om zich heen trok. Tenslotte gaf de noordenwind het maar op. Vervolgens begon de zon krachtig te stralen, en onmiddellijk daarop trok de voorbijganger zijn jas uit. De noordenwind kon toen slechts beamen dat de zon de sterkste was.
Belgian
The phonetic transcription illustrates the speech of "a highly educated 45-year-old male who speaks Belgian Dutch with a very slight regional Limburg accent." Sentence stress is not transcribed.
Phonemic transcription
/də noːrdə(n)ʋɪnt ɛn də zɔn | ʋaːrə(n) ryzi aːn ət maːkə(n) | oːvər ʋi ɦɛt stɛrkstə ʋɑs | tun ɛr ən rɛi̯zɪɣər voːrbɛi̯ kʋɑm mɛt ən ʋɑrmə jɑs aːn || zə spraːkə(n) ɑf | dɑt dəɣeːnə di ɛrɪn zɑu̯ slaːɣə(n) ɔm də rɛi̯zɪɣər zɛi̯n jɑs tə dun œy̑trɛkə(n) | də stɛrkstə ʋɑs || də noːrdə(n)ʋɪnt blis zoː ɦɑrt ɦɛi̯ kɔn | maːr ɦu ɦɑrdər ɦɛi̯ blis | ɦu ʋɑrmər də rɛi̯zɪɣər zɪx ɪndʏfəldə || œy̑tɛi̯ndələk ɣɑf ɦɛi̯ zɛi̯n poːɣɪŋ ɔp || dɑn bəɣɔn də zɔn ɦɑrt tə sxɛi̯nə(n) | ɛn də rɛi̯zɪɣər deːt ɔnmɪdələk zɛi̯n jɑs œy̑t || də noːrdə(n)ʋɪnt must tuɣeːvə(n) | dɑt də zɔn ɦɛt stɛrkstə ʋɑs/
Phonetic transcription
[də noːʀdəwɪntˢ ʔɛn də zɔn | waːʀə ʀyzi aːn ət maːkə | ʔoːvər wi ɦət stɛʀkstə wɑs | tun əʀ ən ʀɛi̯zɪɣəʀ voːʀbɛi̯ kwɑm mɛt ən wɑʀmə jɑzaːn || zə spraːkən ʔɑf | dɑt dəɣeːnə di ʔəʀɪn zɔu̯ slaːɣə ʔɔm də ʀɛi̯zɪɣəʀ zɛi̯n jɑs tə dun ʔœy̑trɛkə | də stɛʀkstə wɑs || də noʀdəwɪnts blis soː ɦɑʀt ɦɛi̯ kɔn | maːʀ ɦu ɦɑʀdəʀ ɦɛi̯ blis | hu wɑʀməʀ də ʀɛi̯zɪɣəʀ zɪx ɪndʏfəldə || ʔœy̑tɛi̯ndələk ɣɑf hɛi̯ zɛi̯n poːɣɪŋ ʔɔp || dɑn bəɣɔn də zɔn ɦɑʀt tə sxɛi̯nə | ʔɛn də ʀɛi̯zɪɣəʀ deːt ɔmɪdələk sɛi̯n jɑzœy̑t || də noːʀdəwɪntˢ must tuɣeːvə | dɑtə zɔn hət stɛʀkstə wɑs]
Orthographic version
De noordenwind en de zon waren ruzie aan het maken over wie het sterkste was toen er een reiziger voorbij kwam met een warme jas aan. Ze spraken af dat degene die erin zou slagen om de reiziger zijn jas te doen uittrekken de sterkste was. De noordenwind blies zo hard hij kon, maar hoe harder hij blies hoe warmer de reiziger zich induffelde. Uitendelijk gaf hij zijn poging op. Dan begon de zon hard te schijnen en de reiziger deed onmiddellijk zijn jas uit. De noordenwind moest toegeven dat de zon het sterkste was.