Celtiberian language

Overview

Enough has been preserved to show that the Celtiberian language could be called Q-Celtic (like Goidelic), and not P-Celtic like Gaulish. For some, this has served to confirm that the legendary invasion of Ireland by the Milesians, preserved in the Lebor Gabála Érenn, actually happened.

Since Brythonic is P-Celtic too, but as an Insular Celtic language more closely related to Goidelic than to Gaulish, it follows that the P/Q division is polyphyletic: the change from kʷ to p occurred in Brythonic and Gaulish at a time when they were already separate languages, rather than constituting a division that marked a separate branch in the "family tree" of the Celtic languages. A change from PIE kʷ (q) to p also occurred in some Italic languages and Ancient Greek dialects: compare Oscan pis, pid ("who, what?") with Latin quis, quid; or Gaulish epos ("horse") and Attic Greek ἵππος hippos with Latin equus and Mycenaean Greek i-qo. Celtiberian and Gaulish are usually grouped together as the Continental Celtic languages, but this grouping is paraphyletic too: no evidence suggests the two shared any common innovation separately from Insular Celtic.

Celtiberian exhibits a fully inflected relative pronoun ios (as does, e.g., Ancient Greek), not preserved in other Celtic languages, and the particles -kue 'and' < *kʷe (cf. Latin -que, Attic Greek τε te), nekue 'nor' < *ne-kʷe (cf. Latin neque), ekue 'also, as well' < *h₂et(i)-kʷe (cf. Lat. atque, Gaulish ate, OIr. aith 'again'), ve "or" (cf. Latin enclitic -ve and Attic Greek ἤ ē < Proto-Greek *ē-we). As in Welsh, there is an s-subjunctive, gabiseti "he shall take" (Old Irish gabid), robiseti, auseti. Compare Umbrian ferest "he/she/it shall make" or Ancient Greek δείξῃ deiksēi (aorist subj.) / δείξει deiksei (future ind.) "(that) he/she/it shall show".

Sound laws

Celtiberian was a Celtic language that shows the characteristic sound changes of Celtic languages such as:

PIE Consonants

PIE bʰ, dʰ, gʰ > b, d, g: Loss of Proto-Indo-European voiced aspiration. Celtiberian and Gaulish placename element -brigā 'hill, town, akro-polis' < *bʰr̥ǵʰ-eh₂. nebintor 'they are watered' < *nebʰ-i-nt-or. ambidiseti < '(that someone) builds around' < *h₂m̥bi-dʰig-s-e-ti. gortika 'mandatory, required' < *gʰor-ti-ka (cfr. Latin ex-horto 'exhort' < *ex-gʰor-to), duatir 'daughter' < *dʰugh₂tēr, duateros 'grandson, son of the daughter' (Common Celtic duxtir), bezom 'mine' < bʰedʰ-yo 'that is pierced'.

PIE *kʷ > ku: Celtiberian changed the PIE voiceless labiovelar kʷ to ku (hence Q-Celtic), a development also observed in Old Irish and Latin. On the contrary Brythonic or P-Celtic (as well as Greek and some Italic languages like Osco-Umbrian) changed kʷ to p. -kue 'and' < *kʷe, Latin -que, Osco-Umbrian -pe 'and', neip 'and not' < *ne-kʷe.

PIE *kw > ku: ekuo horse (in ethnic name ekualakos) < *h₁ekw-os (cf. Latin equus 'horse', OIr. ech 'horse' < *eko < *h₁ekwo, OBret. eb < *epo < *h₁ekwo).

PIE *gʷ > b: bindis 'who dictates with legal force, legislator' < *gʷiHm-diks (cfr. Latin vindex). bovitos 'cow passage' < *gʷow-(e)ito (cfr. OIr bòthar 'cow passage' < *gʷow-(e)itro), boustom 'cowshed' < *gʷow-sto.

PIE *gʷʰ > gu: guezonto < *gʷʰedʰ-y-ont 'imploring, pleading'. Common Celtic *guedyo 'ask, plead, pray', OIr. guidid, W. gweddi.

PIE *p- > *φ- > ∅: Loss of PIE *p, e.g. ro- (Celtiberian, Old Irish and Old Breton) vs. Latin pro- and Sanskrit pra-. ozas sues acc. pl. fem. 'six foots, unit of measure' (< *φodians < *pod-y-ans *sweks. aila 'stone building' < *pl̥-ya (cfr. OIr. ail 'boulder'), vamos 'higher' < *uφamos < *up-m̥os, vrantiom 'remainder, rest' < *uper-n̥tiyo (cfr. Latin (s)uperans).

Consonants clusters

PIE *mn > un: as in Lepontic, Brittonic and Gaulish, but not Old Irish and seemingly not Galatian. Couneso 'neighbour' < *kom-ness-o < *Kom-nedʰ-to (cf. OIr. comnessam 'neighbour' < *Kom-nedʰ-t-m̥o).

PIE *pn > un: Klounia < *kleun-y-a < *kleup-ni 'meadow' (Cfr. OIr. clúain 'meadow' < *klouni). However in Latin *pn > mn: damnum 'damage' < *dHp-no.

PIE *nm > lm: Only in Celtiberian. melmu < *men-mōn 'intelligence', Melmanzos 'gifted with mind' < *men-mn̥-tyo (Cfr. OIr. menme 'mind' < *men-mn̥. Also occurs in modern Spanish: alma 'soul' < *anma < Lat. anima.

PIE *ps > *ss / s: usabituz 'he must excavate (lit. under-dig)' < *upsa-bʰiH-tōd, Useizu * < *useziu < *ups-ed-yō 'highest'. The ethnic name contestani in latin (contesikum in native language), recall the proper name Conteso 'warm-hearted, friendly' (< *kom-tep-so, cf, OIr. tess 'warm' > *tep-so). In Latin epigraphy that sound its transcript with geminated: Usseiticum 'of the Usseitici' < *Usseito < *upse-tyo. However, in Gaulish *ps > *x: Uxama.

PIE *gs > *ks > *ss / s: sues 'six' < *sweks. Desobriga 'south/right city' (Celts were orienting looking east) < *dekso-*bʰr̥ǵʰa, Nertobris 'strength town' < *h₂ner-to-*bʰr̥ǵʰs. es- 'out of, not' < *eks < *h₁eǵʰs (cf. Lat. ex-, Common Celtic exs-, OIr. ess-). In Latin epigraphy that sound its transcript with geminated: Dessicae < *deks-ika. However, in Gaulish *ks > *x: Dexivates.

PIE *gt > *kt > *tt / t: loutu 'load' < *louttu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu. litom 'it is permitted', ne-litom 'it is not permitted' (< *l(e)ik-to, cf. Latin licitum < *lik-e-to). But Common Celtic *kt > *xt: luxtu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu, OIr. lucht. Celtiberian Retugenos 'right born, lawful' < *h₃reg-tō-genos, Gaulish Rextugenos. In Latin epigraphy that sound its transcript with geminated: Britto 'noble' < *brikto < *< *bʰr̥ǵʰ-to.

Vocals

PIE *e, *h₁e > e: Togoitei eni 'in Togotis' < *h₁en-i (cf. Lat. in, OIr. eni 'into, in'), somei eni touzei 'inside of this territory', es- 'out of, not' < *eks < *h₁eǵʰs (cf. Lat. ex-, Common Celtic exs-, OIr. ess-), esankios 'not enclosed, open, lit. unfenced' < *h₁eǵʰs-*h₂enk-yos, treba 'settlement, building', Kontrebia 'group of buildings, town' < *kom-treb-ya (cf. OIr. treb, W. tref 'settlement'), ekuo horse < *h₁ekw-os.

PIE *h₂e > a: ankios 'fenced, enclosed' < *h₂enk-yos, Ablo 'strong' < *h₂ep-lo 'strengtht', augu 'valid, firm' < *h₂ewg-os 'strong, firm, valid'.

PIE *o, *h₁o, *h₂o, *h₃o > o: olzui (dat.sing.) 'for the last' (< *olzo 'last' < *h₂ol-tyo, cf. Lat. ultimus < *h₂ol-t-m̥o. OIr. ollam 'grandson' < *oltamo < *h₂ol-t-m̥), okris 'mountain' (< *h₂ok-r-i, cf. Lat. ocris 'mountain', OIr. ochair 'edge' < *h₂ok-r-i), monima 'memory' (< *monī-mā < *mon-eye-mā).

PIE *eh₁ > ē > ī?. This Celtic reflex isn't well attested in Celtiberian. e.g. IE ^*h₃rēg^'-s meaning "king, ruler" vs. Celtiberian -reiKis, Gaulish -rix, British RIX, Old Irish, Old Welsh, Old Breton ri meaning "king".

PIE *eh₂ > ā: silabur sāzom 'enough money, a considerable amount of money' (< *sātio < *seh₂t-yo, Common celtic sāti 'sufficiency', OIr. sáith), kār 'friendship' (< *keh₂r, cf. Lat. cārus 'dear' < *keh₂r-os, W. caru 'love' < *kh₂r-os).

PIE *eh₃, *oh₁, *oh₂, *oh₃ > ō: Celtic *ū in final syllables and *ā in non-final syllables, e.g. IE ^*dh₃-tōd to Celtiberian datuz meaning 'he must give'.

PIE Hw- > w-: uta 'conj. and' (< *h₂w-ta, 'or, and', cfr, Umb. ute 'or', Lat. aut 'or' (< *h₂ew-ti).

Syllabic resonants and Laryngeals

PIE *n̥ > an / *m̥ > am: arganto 'silver' < *h₂r̥gn̥to (cf. OIr. argat and Latin argentum). kamanom 'path, way' *kanmano < *kn̥gs-mn̥-o (cf. OIr. céimm, OW. cemmein 'step'), decameta 'tithe' < *dekm̥-et-a, dekam 'ten' (cf. Lat. decem, Common Celtic dekam, OIr. deich < *dekm̥), novantutas 'the nine tribes', novan 'nine' < *h₁newn̥ (cf. Lat. novem, Common Celtic novan, OW. nauou < *h₁newn̥), as 'we, us' (< *ans < *n̥s, acc. pl. cf. German uns < *n̥s).

PIE *CHC > CaC (C = any consonant, H = any laringeal): datuz < *dh₃-tōd, dakot 'they put' < *dʰh₁k-ont.

PIE * CCH > CaC (C = any consonant, H = any laringeal): Magilo 'prince' (< *mgh₂-i-lo, cf. OIr. mál 'prince' < *mgh₂-lo).

PIE *r̥R > arR and *l̥R > alR (R = resonant): arznā 'part, share' < *parsna < *pr̥s-nh₂. Common celtic *rasna < *prasna < *parsna < *pr̥s-nh₂.

PIE *r̥P > riP and *rl̥P > liP (P = plosive): briganti PiRiKanTi < *bʰr̥ǵʰ-n̥ti. silabur konsklitom 'silver coined' < *kom-skl̥-to 'to cut'.

PIE *Cr̥HV > CarV and *Cl̥HV > CalV: sailo 'dung, slurry' *salyo < *sl̥H-yo (cf. Lat. saliva < *sl̥H-iwa, OIr. sal 'dirt' < *sl̥H-a), aila 'stone building' < *pl̥-ya (cf. OIr. ail 'boulder'), are- 'first, before' (< *pr̥h₂i. Lat. prae- 'before' < *preh₂i).

PIE *HR̥C > aRC (H = any laringeal, R̥ any syllabic resonant, C = any consonant): arganto 'silver' < *h₂r̥gn̥to, not **riganto.

Noun cases

arznā 'part, share' < *parsna < *pr̥s-nh₂. Common celtic *rasna < *prasna < *parsna < *pr̥s-nh₂.

veizos 'witness' < *weidʰ-yo < *weidʰ- 'perceive,see' / vamos 'higher' < *up-m̥os

gentis 'son, descendance' < *gen-ti. Commom celtic *genos 'family'

loutu 'load' < *louttu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu. Common celtic luxtu < *louktu < *leugʰ-tu (oir. lucht).

duater 'daughter' < *dʰugh₂tēr. Common celtic duxtir.

Sample texts

First Botorrita plaque side A, Botorrita, Saragossa. (K.01.01.A).

trikantam : bergunetakam : togoitos-kue : sarnikio (:) kue : sua : kombalkez : nelitom nekue [: to : vertaunei : litom : nekue : taunei : litom : nekue : masnai : tizaunei : litom : soz : augu aresta[lo] : damai : uta : oskues : stena : verzoniti : silabur : sleitom : konsklitom : gabizeti kantom [:] sanklistara : otanaum : togoitei : eni : uta : oskuez : boustom-ve : korvinom-ve makasiam-ve : ailam-ve : ambidiseti : kamanom : usabituz : ozas : sues : sailo : kusta : bizetuz : iom asekati : [a]mbitinkounei : stena : es : uertai : entara : tiris : matus : tinbituz : neito : trikantam eni : oisatuz : iomui : listas : titas : zizonti : somui : iom : arznas : bionti : iom : kustaikos arznas : kuati : ias : ozias : vertatosue : temeiue : robiseti : saum : dekametinas : datuz : somei eni touzei : iste : ankios : iste : esankios : uze : areitena : sarnikiei : akainakubos nebintor : togoitei : ios : vramtiom-ve : auzeti : aratim-ve : dekametam : datuz : iom : togoitos-kue sarnikio-kue : aiuizas : kombalkores : aleites : iste : ires : ruzimuz : ablu : ubokum soz augu arestalo damai all this (is) valid by order of the competent authority 'all this' soz (< *sod) 'final, valid' augo (< *h₂eug-os 'strong, valid', cf. Latin augustus 'solemn'). 'of the competent authority' arestalos (< *pr̥Hi-steh₂-lo 'competent authority' < *pr̥Hi-sto 'what is first, authority', gen. sing.) 'by order' damai (< *dʰh₁m-eh₂ 'put, dispose', instrumental fem. sing.). (Translation: Prosper 2006) saum dekametinas datuz somei eni touzei iste ankios iste es-ankios of these, he will give the tax inside of this territory, so be fenced as be unfenced 'of these' (saum < *sa-ōm) 'the tithes, the tax' (dekametinas) 'he will pay, will give' (datuz) 'indide, in' (eni < *h₁en-i) 'of this' (somei loc. sing. < *so-sm-ei 'from this') 'territory' (touzei loc. sing. < *touzom 'territory' < *tewt-yo) 'so (be) fenced' iste ankios 'as (be) unfenced' iste es-ankios (Transcription Jordán 2004) togoitei ios vramtiom-ve auzeti aratim-ve dekametam datuz In Togotis, he who draws water either for the green or for the farmland, the tithe (of their yield) he shall give (Translation: De Bernardo 2007)

Great inscription from Peñalba de Villastar, Teruel. (K.03.03).

eni Orosei uta Tigino tiatunei erecaias to Luguei araianom komeimu eni Orosei Ekueisui-kue okris olokas togias sistat Luguei tiaso togias eni Orosei uta Tigino tiatunei erecaias to Luguei araianom comeimu eni Orosei Ekueisui-kue okris olokas togias sistat Luguei in Orosis and the surroundings of Tigino river, we dedicate the fields to Lugus. In Orosis and Equeiso the hills, the vegetable gardens and the houses are dedicated to Lugus 'in' eni (< *h₁en-i) 'Orosis' Orosei (loc. sing. *oros-ei) 'and' uta(conj. cop.) 'of Tigino (river)' (gen. sing. *tigin-o) 'in the surroundings' (loc. sing. *tiatoun-ei < *to-yh₂eto-mn-ei) 'the furrows > the land cultivated' erekaiās < *perka-i-ans acc. pl. fem.) 'to Lugus' to Luguei araianom (may be a verbal complement: properly, lollaly, humbly???) 'we dedicate' komeimu (< *komeimuz < *kom-ei-mos-i, present 3 p.pl.) 'in' eni 'Orosis' (Orosei loc. sing.) 'in Ekueisu' (Ekueisui loc. sing.) '-and' (-kue <*-kʷe) 'the hills' (okris < *h₂ok-r-eyes. nom. pl.) 'the vegetable gardens' (olokas < *olkās < *polk-eh₂-s, nom. pl.) '(and) the roofs > houses' (togias < tog-ya-s, nom. pl.) 'are they (dedicated)' sistat (< *sistant < *si-sth₂-nti, 3 p.pl.) 'to Lug' (Lugue-i dat.) (Transcription: Meid 1994, Translation: Prosper 2002)

Bronze plaque of Torrijo del Campo, Teruel.

kelaunikui derkininei : es kenim : dures : lau ni : olzui : obakai eskenim : dures useizunos : gorzo nei : lutorikum : ei subos : adizai : ekue : kar tinokum : ekue : lankikum ekue : tirtokum : silabur sazom : ibos : esatui Lutorikum eisubos adizai ekue Kartinokum ekue Lankikum ekue Tirtokum silabur sazom ibos esatui (datuz) for those of the Lutorici included in the duty, and also of the Cartinoci, of the Lancici and of the Tritoci, must give enough money to settle the debt with them. 'for those included ' (eisubos < *h₁epi-s-o-bʰos) 'of the Lutorici' (lutorikum gen. masc. pl.) 'and also' (ekue <*h₂et(i)kʷe) 'of the Cartinoci' (kartinokum) 'and also' (ekue) 'of the Lancici' (lankikum) 'and also' (ekue) 'of the Tritoci' (tirtokum) 'in the assignment, in the duty' (adizai loc. fem. sing. < *adittia < *ad-dik-tia. Cfr. Latin addictio 'assignment'), 'money' (silabur) 'enough' (sazom < *sātio < *seh₂t-yo) 'to settle the debt' (esatui < *essato < *eks-h₂eg-to. Cfr. Latin ex-igo 'demand' and exactum 'equivalent') 'for them' (ibus < *i-bʰos, dat.3 p.pl.) 'must give' (datuz < *dh₃-tōd). (Transcription and Translation: Prosper 2015)