Life and Education
William Freer Bale, son of R. O. Bale was awarded a scholarship to Cornell University from Odessa, Schuyler County, New York after successfully passing an examination. Bale graduated from Cornell in 1932. In 1936 he completed his Ph.D. dissertation at the University of Rochester.
The Atomic Energy Project at the University of Rochester was a graduate teaching program. Stafford L. Warren directed the Department of Radiology and the project had three divisions. Bale headed the Radiology and Biophysics division that worked largely on radioactive materials—for example, radium, radon, plutonium, and polonium. James Newell Stannard was responsible for 2 sections, the Radiation Toxicology section and the Radioautography section. Harold Hodge headed the Pharmacology and Toxicology division that focused on Uranium including inhalation studies. Joe W. Howland, M.D. headed the Medical Services division. Herbert Mermagen worked in the Medical Physics section as a radiological physicist, known today as a health physicist.
Bale performed research in X-ray diffraction of tooth and bone tissue. At Rochester responsible for development of dipping type counter tube for the determination of radioactivity in solutions. Responsible for the coordination of radioactive tracer research at Rochester and during World War II worked with the Manhattan Project performing uranium toxicology studies.
At Rochester, Bale worked with George Hoyt Whipple. The discoveries of artificial radioactivity by Joliot-Curie and Fermi and the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence with its capability of producing useful amounts of radioactive iron (59Fe) permitted Whipple, Paul F. Hahn, and Bale in 1937 to begin an examination of the nature of iron absorption and utilization.
In 1951 upon retirement from the University of Rochester, Bale became a Consultant in the Division of Biology and Medicine, Biophysics Branch, for the Atomic Energy Commission.
Radon and Miners
As early as the 1920s, German scientists were proposing that radon was the cause of the great excess of lung cancers (Ludewig et al. 1924). Data from this research was collected during autopsies. From the 1820s to 1920s over 400 mine workers from a particular region were found to have died of `lung cancer` separate from other causes of death. Even with collective evidence, it was not until the 1950s, thanks in part to W.F. Bale, that it was accepted by researchers that radon was the major cause of radiation damage to lung tissue in mine workers. Also discovered, was that tin, iron and uranium miners experience much higher levels of radon than coal miners.
Dr. Bale was the contact person at the University of Rochester for correspondence between Rochester and the Los Alamos Laboratory pertaining to the human plutonium study. Bale was involved in the experiments that injected plutonium into human research subjects or ‘patients’. The human subjects were informed that these experiments were important to the war effort. The patients were told that the radioactive material had the potential to be hazardous in large doses but that the patients would receive small amounts that were not believed to be of any significant risk. Again, the emphasis was placed on the importance to the war effort. Bale would only select people that volunteer for the research and were eager to cooperate. Among those involved included: Albert Frenkel, Dorraine Leake, Helen Van Alstine, and Nat Cedars.
Select Awards and Honors
Reviewer, Cancer Research Journal
Sigma Xi member
Speaker, 112th Annual Meeting in St. Louis, American Association for the Advancement of Science, March 1946
Speaker, 1947 Meeting, National Academy of Sciences, American Association for the Advancement of Science, Blood Protein Studies with Labeled Elements.
Speaker, Conference on the Use of Radioactive Isotopes as Tracers and Therapeutic Agents, Vanderbilt University
Apparatus for the Rapid Determination of β‐Ray Activity in Solutions
Radioactive iron and its metabolism in anemia. Its absorption, transportation, and utilization
A Combined Voltage Regulating and Quenching Circuit for the Geiger‐Müller Counter
Radiation dosage to lungs from radon and its daughter products, Bale and Shapiro.
William F. Bale, X-RAY DIFFRACTION STUDIES OF THE STRUCTURE OF BONE AND TOOTH SUBSTANCE, University of Rochester, Ph.D. Dissertation, (1936).
S. W. O'Connor, W. F. Bale, Accessibility of circulating immunoglobulin G to the extravascular compartment of solid rat tumors, Cancer Res., 44(9), 3719-23 (1984).
M. A. Contreras, W. F. Bale, I. L. Spar, Iodine monochloride (IC1) iodination techniques, Meth. Enzymol., 92: 277-92 (1983).
W. F. Bale, M. A. Contreras, E. D. Grady, Factors influencing localization of labeled antibodies in tumors, Cancer Res., 40(8 Pt 2), 2965-72 (1980).
R. W. Helmkamp, W. F. Bale, V. Hrynyszyn, The determination of 210Po and 210Bi in human urine by direct extraction on nickel, Int J Appl Radiat Isot, 30(4), 237-46 (1979).
M. J. Izzo, M. A. Contreras, W. F. Bale, Localization in rat skin transplants of purified 125I-labeled xenogeneic histocompatibility antibody, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 154(2), 184-7 (1977).
M. J. Izzo, W. F. Bale, Preferential localization and rate of loss of labeled alloantibody from rat tumors and skin transplants carrying the corresponding alloantigen, Cancer Res., 36(8), 2868-73 (1976).
W. F. Bale, R. W. Helmkamp, V. Hrynyszyn, M. A. Contreras, The determination of 210Po in urine, Health Phys, 29(5), 663-71 (1975).
W. F. Bale, M. A. Contreras, M. J. Izzo, D. della Penta, D. J. Buchsbaum, Preferential in-vivo localization of 125I-labeled antibody in a carcinogen-induced syngeneic rat tumor, Prog Exp Tumor Res, 19(), 270-83 (1974).
M. J. Izzo, D. J. Buchsbaum, W. F. Bale, Localization of an 125I-labeled rat transplantation antibody in tumors carrying the corresponding antigen, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 139(4), 1185-8 (1972).
M. D. Contreras, W. F. Bale, Endotoxin, epinephrine, and ellagic acid effects on the radiation-sensitized walker 256 rat carcinosarcoma, Radiat. Res., 36(1), 166-79 (1968).
D. Marrack, M. Kubala, P. Corry, M. Leavens, J. Howze, W. Dewey, W. F. Bale, I. L. Spar, Localization of intracranial tumors. Comparative study with 131-I-labeled antibody to human fibrinogen and neohydrin-203Hg, Cancer, 20(5), 751-5 (1967).
I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, D. Marrack, W. C. Dewey, R. J. McCardle, P. V. Harper, 131I-labeled antibodies to human fibrinogen. Diagnostic studies and therapeutic trials Cancer, 20(5), 865-70 (1967).
J. L. Izzo, J. W. Bartlett, A. Roncone, M. J. Izzo, W. F. Bale, Physiological processes and dynamics in the disposition of small and large doses of biologically active and inactive 131I-insulins in the rat, J. Biol. Chem., 242(10), 2343-55 (1967).
R. W. Helmkamp, M. A. Contreras, W. F. Bale, I-131-labeling of proteins by the iodine monochloride method, Int J Appl Radiat Isot, 18(11), 737-46 (1967).
R. W. Helmkamp, de los Angeles Contrera, W. F. Bale, A procedure for the determination of total iodine in radioactive iodide preparations of high specific activity, J. Nucl. Med., 7(7), 491-500 (1966).
R. J. McCardle, P. V. Harper, I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, G. Andros, F. Jiminez, Studies with iodine-131-labeled antibody to human fibrinogen for diagnosis and therapy of tumors, J. Nucl. Med., 7(11), 837-47 (1966).
W. F. Bale, R. W. Helmkamp, T. P. Davis, M. J. Izzo, R. L. Goodland, M. A. Contreras, I. L. Spar, High specific activity labeling of protein with I-131 by the iodine monochloride method, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 122(2), 407-14 (1966).
I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, R. L. Goodland, M. J. Izzo, PREPARATION OF PURIFIED I-131-LABELED ANTIBODY WHICH REACTS WITH HUMAN FIBRIN. PRELIMINARY TRACER STUDIES ON TUMOR PATIENTS, Cancer Res., 24(), 286-93 (1964).
J. L. Izzo, W. F. Bale, M. J. Izzo, A. Roncone, HIGH SPECIFIC ACTIVITY LABELING OF INSULIN WITH I-131. UR-637 UR Rep, 86(), 1-22 (1964).
R. W. Helmkamp, M. A. Contreras, W. F. Bale, THE DETERMINATION OF TOTAL IODINE IN I-131-IODIDE PREPARATIONS OF HIGH SPECIFIC ACTIVITY. UR-644 UR Rep, 45: 1-32 (1964).
J. L. Izzo, W. F. Bale, M. J. Izzo, A. Roncone, HIGH SPECIFIC ACTIVITY LABELING OF INSULIN WITH 131I, J. Biol. Chem., 239: 3743-8 (1964).
J. L. Izzo, A. Roncone, M. J. Izzo, W. F. Bale, RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEGREE OF IODINATION OF INSULIN AND ITS BIOLOGICAL, ELECTROPHORETIC, AND IMMUNOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES, J. Biol. Chem., 239: 3749-54 (1964).
I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, R. L. Goodland, G. di Chiro, Preparation of purified I-131 labeled antisera to human fibrinogen. Preliminary studies in tumor patients, Acta Unio Int Contra Cancrum, 19: 197-200 (1963).
W. C. Dewey, W. F. Bale, R. G. Rose, D. Marrack, Localization of antifibrin antibodies in human tumors, Acta Unio Int Contra Cancrum, 19: 185-96 (1963).
G. Dichiro, I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, E. J. Laskowski, R. L. Goodland, W. B. Matthews, 'RIAF' --RADIO-IODINATED ANTI-FIBRINOGEN ENCEPHALOGRAPHY, Acta Radiol Diagn (Stockholm), 1: 967-71 (1963).
W. F. Bale, R. W. Helmkamp, T. P. Davis, M. J. Izzo, R. L. Goodland, I. L. Spar, High specific activity labeling of protein with I-131, UR Rep, 604: 37 (1962).
W. F. Bale, I. L. Spar, R. L. Goodland, Research directed toward the use of I-131 labeled fibrinogen and antibody to fibrin in the localization and treatment of tumors, UR Rep, 612: 61 (1962).
W. F. Bale, I. L. Spar, R. L. Goodland, Experimental radiation therapy of tumors with I-131-carrying antibodies to fibrin, Cancer Res., 20: 1488-94 (1960).
R. W. Helmkamp, R. L. Goodland, W. F. Bale, I. L. Spar, L. E. Mutschler, High specific activity iodination of gamma-globulin with iodine-131 monochloride, Cancer Res., 20: 1495-1500 (1960).
W. F. Bale, I. L. Spar, R. L. Goodland, Experimental radiation therapy of tumors using I-131 carrying antibodies to fibrin, ORINS Rep US At Energy Comm, UR-567: 1-25 (1960).
R. W. Helmkamp, R. L. Goodland, W. F. Bale, I. L. Spar, L. E. Mutschler, High specific activity iodination of gamma-globulin with iodine-131 monochloride, ORINS Rep US At Energy Comm, UR-568:, 1-18 (1960).
I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, R. L. Goodland, G. W. Casarett, S. M. Michaelson, Distribution of injected I-131 labeled antibody to dog fibrin in tumor-bearing dogs, UR Rep, UR-569: 1-13 (1960).
I. L. Spar, R. L. Goodland, W. F. Bale, Localization of I131 labeled antibody of rat fibrin in transplantable rat lymphosarcoma, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 100(2), 259-62 (1959).
I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, R. L. Goodland, In-vivo localization studies of I-131 labeled anti-Murphy-Sturm lymphosarcoma antibodies, Acta Unio Int Contra Cancrum, 15: 980-5 (1959).
L. W. Tuttle, R. C. Baxter, M. Goldman, W. F. Bale, The metabolism and toxicology of strontium-90 in the rat. Rationale, experimental procedures, pilot experiments, UR Rep, 424: 1-26 (1959).
W. F. Bale, I. L. Spar, R. L. Goodland, In-vivo purification of I-131 labeled antirat lymphosarcoma antibody, J. Immunol., 80(6), 482-94 (1958).
I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, R. L. Goodland, Use of urea and salicylate to elute antibody from insoluble antigen, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 94(4), 803-7 (1957).
W. F. Bale, I. L. Spar, Studies directed toward the use of antibodies as carriers of radioactivity for therapy, Adv Biol Med Phys, 5: 285-356 (1957).
I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, D. E. Wolfe, R. L. Goodland, Organ specificity of I-131 labeled rabbit kidney eluates in rats and rabbits, J. Immunol., 76(2), 119-29 (1956).
BALE, W. F. and SHAPIRO, J. V. Radiation dosage to lungs from radon and its daughter products. Proc. UN International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, (August 1955), Vol 13. United Nations, New York, 1956, 233-236.
W. F. Bale, I. L. Spar, R. L. Goodland, D. E. Wolfe, In-vivo and in-vitro studies of labeled antibodies against rat kidney and Walker carcinoma, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 89(4), 564-8 (1955).
G. H. Whipple, F. S. Robscheit-Robbins, W. F. Bale, Red cell stroma protein rich in vitamin B12 during active regeneration; anemia studies using radioactive cobalt B12 in dogs, J. Exp. Med., 102(6), 725-31 (1955).
L. L. Miller, W. F. Bale, The metabolic conversion of the carbon chain of lysine-6-C14 to glutamic acid, aspartic acid and arginine, Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 48(2), 361-9 (1954).
L. L. Miller, W. F. Bale, Synthesis of all plasma protein fractions except gamma globulins by the liver; the use of zone electrophoresis and lysine-epsilon-C14 to define the plasma proteins synthesized by the isolated perfused liver, J. Exp. Med., 99(2), 125-32 (1954).
L. L. Miller, C. G. Bly, W. F. Bale, Plasma and tissue proteins produced by non-hepatic rat organs as studied with lysine-epsilon-C14; gamma globulins the chief plasma protein fraction produced by non-hepatic tissues, J. Exp. Med., 99(2), 133-53 (1954).
W. F. Bale, I. L. Spar, In-vivo localization of rat organ antibodies in ovaries, adrenals, and other tissues, J. Immunol., 73(3), 125-33 (1954).
I. L. Spar, W. F. Bale, In-vivo localization of labeled rat adrenal antibodies, J. Immunol., 73(3), 134-7 (1954).
M. Toporek, L. L. Miller, W. F. Bale, Carbon atom 2 of L-histidine-2-C14, a source of the carbon of labile methyl groups in liver, J. Biol. Chem., 198(2), 839-51 (1952).
W. F. Bale, The detection of radiation hazards: instruments and personnel, Radiology, 56(5), 656-60 (1951).
L. L. Miller, C. G. Bly, M. L. Watson, W. F. Bale, The dominant role of the liver in plasma protein synthesis; a direct study of the isolated perfused rat liver with the aid of lysine-epsilon-C14, J. Exp. Med., 94(5), 431-53 (1951).
W. Mann, W. F. Bale, The distribution in rabbit tissues of intravenously injected iodine as shown by the radioisotope I-130, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 95(1), 12-7 (1949).
L. L. Miller, W. F. Bale, The use of radioactive lysine in studies of protein metabolism; synthesis and utilization of plasma proteins, J. Exp. Med., 90(4), 297-313 (1949).
W. F. Bale, C. L. Yuile, Hemoglobin labeled by radioactive lysine; erythrocyte life cycle, J. Exp. Med., 90(4), 315-20 (1949).
W. F. Bale, Blood protein studies with labeled elements, Science, 105(2738), 632 (1947).
W. F. Bale, Health protection in the production and use of atomic energy, Dipl, 19(1), 23-7 (1947).
P. F. Hahn, W. F. Bale, G. H. Whipple, Effects of inflammation (turpentine abscess) on iron absorption, Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 61: 405 (1946).
W. F. Bale, Health protection in the production and use of atomic energy, Occup Med (Chicago, Illinois), 2: 1-7 (1946).
W. F. Bale, Some prospective medical uses of atomic energy, J Am Pharm Assoc, Am Pharm Assoc (Baltimore), 7: 81 (1946).
P. F. Hahn, L. L. Miller, F. S. Robscheit-Robbins, W. F. Bale, G. H. Whipple, PERITONEAL ABSORPTION: RED CELLS LABELED BY RADIO-IRON HEMOGLOBIN MOVE PROMPTLY FROM PERITONEAL CAVITY INTO THE CIRCULATION, J. Exp. Med., 80(2), 77-82 (1944).
R. M. Fink, T. Enns, C. P. Kimball, H. E. Silberstein, W. F. Bale, S. C. Madden, G. H. Whipple, PLASMA PROTEIN METABOLISM-NORMAL AND ASSOCIATED WITH SHOCK: OBSERVATIONS USING PROTEIN LABELED BY HEAVY NITROGEN IN LYSINE, J. Exp. Med., 80(6), 455-75 (1944).
P. F. Hahn, W. F. Bale, J. F. Ross, W. M. Balfour, G. H. Whipple, RADIOACTIVE IRON ABSORPTION BY GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT: INFLUENCE OF ANEMIA, ANOXIA, AND ANTECEDENT FEEDING DISTRIBUTION IN GROWING DOGS, J. Exp. Med., 78(3), 169-88 (1943).
P. F. Hahn, J. F. Ross, W. F. Bale, W. M. Balfour, G. H. Whipple, RED CELL AND PLASMA VOLUMES (CIRCULATING AND TOTAL) AS DETERMINED BY RADIO IRON AND BY DYE, J. Exp. Med., 75(2), 221-32 (1942).
W. M. Balfour, P. F. Hahn, W. F. Bale, W. T. Pommerenke, G. H. Whipple, RADIOACTIVE IRON ABSORPTION IN CLINICAL CONDITIONS: NORMAL, PREGNANCY, ANEMIA, AND HEMOCHROMATOSIS, J. Exp. Med., 76(1), 15-30 (1942).
H. Yoshikawa, P. F. Hahn, W. F. Bale, RED CELL AND PLASMA RADIOACTIVE COPPER IN NORMAL AND ANEMIC DOGS, J. Exp. Med., 75(5), 489-94 (1942).
W. O. Fenn, W. F. Bale, L. J. Mullins, THE RADIOACTIVITY OF POTASSIUM FROM HUMAN SOURCES, J. Gen. Physiol., 25(3), 345-53 (1942).
P. F. Hahn, W. M. Balfour, J. F. Ross, W. F. Bale, G. H. Whipple, RED CELL VOLUME CIRCULATING AND TOTAL AS DETERMINED BY RADIO-IRON, Science, 93(2404), 87-8 (1941).
N. L. Kaltreider, G. R. Meneely, J. R. Allen, W. F. Bale, DETERMINATION OF THE VOLUME OF THE EXTRACELLULAR FLUID OF THE BODY WITH RADIOACTIVE SODIUM, J. Exp. Med., 74(6), 569-90 (1941).
P. F. Hahn, W. F. Bale, J. F. Ross, R. A. Hettig, G. H. Whipple, RADIO-IRON IN PLASMA DOES NOT EXCHANGE WITH HEMOGLOBIN IRON IN RED CELLS, Science, 92(2380), 131-2 (1940).
P. F. Hahn, J. F. Ross, W. F. Bale, G. H. Whipple, THE UTILIZATION OF IRON AND THE RAPIDITY OF HEMOGLOBIN FORMATION IN ANEMIA DUE TO BLOOD LOSS, J. Exp. Med., 71(6), 731-6 (1940).
P. F. Hahn, W. F. Bale, E. O. Lawrence, G. H. Whipple, RADIOACTIVE IRON AND ITS METABOLISM IN ANEMIA: ITS ABSORPTION, TRANSPORTATION, AND UTILIZATION, J. Exp. Med., 69(5), 739-53 (1939).
P. F. Hahn, W. F. Bale, R. A. Hettig, M. D. Kamen, G. H. Whipple, RADIOACTIVE IRON AND ITS EXCRETION IN URINE, BILE, AND FECES, J. Exp. Med., 70(5), 443-51 (1939).
W. F. Bale, Clinical methods and their limitations; practical problems and hazards in the application of labelled compounds to clinical investigation, Trans Conf Metab Asp Conval, 60: 71-79.
W. F. Bale, Determination of hard radiation, including preparation of samples, U S Navy Medical Bulletin, 48, 100-103.
