Stage theories are based on the idea that elements in systems move through a pattern of distinct stages over time and that these stages can be described based on their distinguishing characteristics. Specifically, stages in cognitive development have a constant order of succession, later stages integrate the achievements of earlier stages, and each is characterized by a particular type of structure of mental processes which is specific to it. The time of appearance may vary to a certain extent depending upon environmental conditions.
Contents
- Piagets theory of cognitive development
- Underlying assumptions
- Sensorimotor stage birth to 2 years
- Object permanence
- Sensorimotor play
- Preoperational stage 2 to 7 years
- Concrete operations 7 to 11 years
- Formal operations 11 to 16 years
- Limitations of Piagets theory
- Neo Piagetian and Post Piagetian stage theories
- List of books formulating stage theories
- Related works
- References
"Stage theory" can also be applied beyond psychology to describe phenomena more generally where multiple phases lead to an outcome. The term "stage theory" can thus be applied to various scientific, sociological and business disciplines. In these contexts, stages may not be as rigidly defined, and it is possible for individuals within the multi-stage process to revert to earlier stages or skip some stages entirely.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development
See also: Theory of cognitive developmentJean Piaget's theory consists of four stages: Sensorimotor: (birth to 2 years), Preoperations: (2 to 7 years), Concrete operations: (7 to 11 years), and Formal Operations: (11 to 16 years). Each stage has at least two substages, usually called early and fully.
Underlying assumptions
Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)
This stage is represented when infants obtain some control over their surroundings by sensory and motor schemes. Infants start to identify their actions and the consequences of their actions.
A child comes into the world knowing almost nothing, but they have the potential that comes in the form of:
Infants use these potentials to explore and gain an understanding about themselves and the environment. They have a lack of object permanence, which means they have little or no ability to conceive things as existing outside their immediate vicinity. For example: when you place a barrier, such as a piece of wood, in front of an object an infant will believe that the object is nonexistent.
Object permanence
Study
Sensorimotor play
This play does not provide a purpose other than sensation:
Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)
Preoperational intelligence means the young child is capable of mental representations, but does not have a system for organizing this thinking (intuitive rather than logical thought). The child is egocentric – which is they have problems distinguishing from their own perceptions and perceptions of others. A classic example is, a preoperational child will cover their eyes so they can not see someone and think that that person can not see them either.
The child also has rigid thinking, which involves the following:
Concrete operations (7 to 11 years)
The concrete operational child will overcome the aspects of rigidity apparent in a preoperational child. These are:
The tasks of concrete operations are:
It is important to realise that operations and conservations do not develop at the same time. They develop gradually and are not an ‘all or nothing’ phenomenon. For example, the first to develop is number conservation followed by mass conservation, area conservation, liquid conservation and finally solid volume conservation. Thinking is not abstract. It is limited to concrete phenomena and the child’s own past experiences.
Formal operations (11 to 16 years)
Limitations of Piaget's theory
A popular criticism is that Piaget underestimated the abilities of an infant. Studies have shown that they have more of a capacity in memory and understanding of objects than he believed.
Neo-Piagetian and Post-Piagetian stage theories
Juan Pascaual-Leone was the first to propose a neo-Piagetian stage theory. Since that time there have been several neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development. Only the ones that cover at least infancy through adulthood are mentioned here. These include the theories of Robbie Case, Grame Halford, Andreas Demetriou and Kurt W. Fischer. The theory of Michael Commons' model of hierarchical complexity is also relevant. The description of stages in these theories is more elaborate and focuses on underlying mechanisms of information processing rather than on reasoning as such. In fact, development in information processing capacity is invoked to explain the development of reasoning. More stages are described (as many as 15 stages), with 4 being added beyond the stage of Formal operations. Most stage sequences map onto one another. PostPiagetian stages are free of content and context and are therefore very powerful and general.