Portuguese conquest of Goa

Background

On November the 4th 1509, Afonso de Albuquerque succeeded Dom Francisco de Almeida as Governor of the Portuguese State of India, after the arrival in India of the Marshal of Portugal Dom Fernando Coutinho, sent by King Manuel to enforce the orderly succession of Albuquerque to office. Unlike Almeida, Albuquerque realized that the Portuguese could take a more active role breaking Muslim supremacy in the Indian Ocean trade by taking control of three strategic chokepoints - Aden, Hormuz and Malacca. Albuquerque also understood the necessity of estabilishing a base of operations in lands directly controlled by the Portuguese crown and not just in territory granted by allied rulers such as Cochin and Cannanore.

Portuguese preparations

Shortly after a failed attack on Calicut in 1509, Albuquerque was replenishing his troops in Cochin and organizing an expedition with which to attack the Suez in the Red Sea, where the Mamluks were believed, correctly, to be preparing a new fleet to send to India against the Portuguese. The Portuguese Marshall Dom Fernando Coutinho had been killed in Calicut, fortuitously leaving Albuquerque with full, uncontested command of Portuguese forces in India. The Portuguese force was composed of 23 ships, 1200 Portuguese soldiers, 400 Portuguese sailors, 220 Malabarese auxilliaries from Cochin and 3000 "fighting slaves". The expedition set sail for the Red Sea in late January 1510, in February 6th anchored by Canannore and in the 13th sighted Mount of Eli.

By the Mount of Eli, Albuquerque summoned his captains to his flagship, the Flor de la Mar, where he revealed the objective of the expedition: He had orders from King Manuel I to subjugate Hormuz, but seeing as the Mamluks were assembling a fleet at the Suez, he considered diverting from the original course of action and destroy it before it was ready.

Thereafter, the expedition resumed its course and anchored by the city of Honavar, where Albuquerque was approached by an aquaintance of the Portuguese: the powerful Malabarese privateer, Timoji (Thimayya). Timoji claimed to Albuquerque that it would be dangerous to leave for the Red Sea, as within the nearby city of Goa the remnants of the Mamluk expedition destroyed in the Battle of Diu were regrouping and reffiting new ships, but the city was scarcely defended as Sultan of Bijapur Yusuf Adil Shah had recently died and his heir Ismail Adil Shah was young and inexperienced. Knowing of the discontent among the Hindus of Goa after falling to the Muslim rulers of Bijapur in 1496, Timoji proposed to Albuquerque his support in capturing the city. Timoji's timely proposition was not entirely coincidental, as Albuquerque had already received in Cochin envoys of Timoji requesting a rendezvous.

Upon assembling with his captains, Albuquerque convinced them that it was crucial that they attacked Goa.

The first conquest of Goa

In February the 16th, the Portuguese armada sailed into the deep waters of the Mandovi river. Supported by 2000 men of Timoji, the Portuguese landed troops commanded by Dom António de Noronha and assaulted the fort of Pangim, defended by by a Turkish mercenary Yusuf Gurgij ahead of 400 men. Yusuf was wounded and retreated to the city and the Portuguese captured the fort along with several iron artillery pieces. At Pangim Albuquerque received envoys from the most important figures of Goa, and proposed religious freedom and lower taxes should they refuse to aid the Muslims. Thereafter they declared their full support towards the Portuguese and Albuquerque formally occupied Goa in February 17th 1510 with no resistance.

In the city, the Portuguese found partially finished new ships, confirming Timoji's information about the enemy's preparations. For his assistance, he was nominated tanadar-mor (the head tax-collector of indigenous peoples) of Goa.

Expecting a retaliation from the Sultan of Bijapur, Albuquerque began organizing the city's defences. The city's walls were repaired, the moat was expanded and filled with water and storehouses for weapons and supplies were built. The ships were to be finished and pressed into Portuguese service, and the five fording points into the island - Banastarim, Naroá, Agaçaim, Passo Seco and Daugim - were defended by Portuguese and Malabarese troops, supported by several artillery pieces.

At the same time, Albuquerque sent an embassy to the court of the neighbouring Hindu Vijayanagara Empire, hoping to secure an alliance against Bijapur.

Adil Shah's counterattack

Unbeknownst to Albuquerque, the Adil Shah had just agreed on a truce with the Vijayanagara Empire, and could divert much more troops into recapturing the city than expected. Thus, he sent a Turkish general, Pulad Khan ahead of 40,000 troops, which included many experienced Persian and Turkic mercenaries, that immediately defeated Timoja's troops that had occupied the lands on the mainland. Pulad Khan then awaited for the monsoon to trap the Portuguese before assaulting the island. Albuquerque was aware of this plan, through a Portuguese renegade, João Machado that had defected from the armada of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1501 and was now a prestigious captain in the Adil Shah's service. He was sent to convince his fellow countrymen to surrender or flee. Trusting the strenght of his denfensive position, Albuquerque rejected Machado's propositions.

With the coming of the monsoon rains however, the Portuguese situation became critical: the tropical weather claimed a great amount of Portuguese lives, foodstuffs deteriorated and the Portuguese were stretched too thin to hold back the Muslim army. Under these conditions, Pulad Khan launched a major assault on May 11, across the Banastarim pass at low tide amidst a heavy storm, quickly overwhelming the small number of Portuguese troops. As their defenses crumbled, a Muslim revolt broke out in the outskirts of Goa as the Portuguese hurriedly retreated into the city walls with the aid of their Hindu allies but abandoning several artillery pieces by the riverside.

The following day, Pulad Khan ordered an assult against the city but was repelled. Only now Albuquerque knew of the truce between Bijapur and Vijayanagara, and spent the rest of May preparing a retreat. Refusing to set fire to the city, Albuquerque ordered a great amount of spices and copper to be scattered on the streets to delay the enemy's advance and on May 31, all remaining Portuguese embarked on the ships under enemy fire, covered by a small number of Portuguese soldiers holding back the enemy's advance.

Second conquest of Goa

Albuquerque sailed from Cannanore (capital of Kolathunad) and returned three months later, on November 24, with a stronger fleet, composed of 34 ships, 1500 Portuguese and 300 Malabarese. He again joined forces with Thimayya in Honavar. He was fearing an alliance of Goa with Gujarat, Zamorin's Calicut and the Mamluk Egyptians.

Albuquerque was then able to capture Goa in less than a day, from Ismail Adil Shah, who surrendered on 10 December. "As soon as the Portuguese were in entire possession of Goa, Albuquerque directed that the Muhammadan population, men, women and children, should be put to the sword. This cruel butchery is far more to Albuquerque's discredit than the hanging of Ruy Dias, for which the poet Camoens so strongly condemns him."

Thereafter, Goa then supplanted Calicut in prosperity.

Albuquerque had captured Goa without royal orders, and was opposed by his captains in doing so. The king challenged the Portuguese establishment at Goa, but the council of the fidalgos finally confirmed the possession, to the displeasure of the king. The city of Goa nevertheless constituted a strong position that reinforced the strategic presence of the Portuguese in India.

The Portuguese did continue to have misgivings about their possessions in India, as they discussed in 1542 and 1570 whether they should abandon the Estado da Índia in order to better concentrate on the conquest of Morocco.