Otjiherero Grammar

Nouns

Otjiherero includes the standard six personal pronouns, twenty-one noun classes for general nouns, and three prepositions that can exhibit nominal properties.

General Nouns

Nearly every noun in Otjiherero belongs to a noun class. There are nine main noun classes, as well as one rare noun classes. Each of these noun classes has a subclass for singular nouns and plural nouns. Noun classes are critical to the speaking of proper Otjiherero, because each noun class has its own demonstrative, object pronoun, object concord, relative concords, possessive prefix, and pronoun.

A noun's noun class can be determined by the first few letters of the word. This prefix is known as a noun-class prefix, and the rest of the word is called the noun stem. A singular noun can be made plural by changing the noun-class prefix into the corresponding plural noun-class prefix in its noun class. Likewise, a plural noun can be made singular by changing the noun-class prefix into the corresponding singular noun-class prefix in its noun class. This differs greatly from English and many western languages, which typically pluralize words by changing the end sounds—for example, adding "s".

Some of the prefixes occur in multiple classes, such as omu and oma. Knowing which noun class that words with these prefixes belong to can often be guessed based on the type of word, but ultimately one must have the noun class of the word memorized.

Noun classes tend to have loose themes. These are not strictly adhered to, and any type of word may find itself in nearly any noun class. The only noun class that strictly adheres to its theme would be the first class, as any noun in this class will refer to a person or people.

An exception to the two-subclass system occurs in the oo- subclass. This occurs because this subclass is the pluralization of nouns that do not have a noun-class prefix, which is an extremely rare occurrence. Examples of this include the pluralization of mama ("mom") into oomama, tate ("father") into ootate, or the pluralization of a name to refer to the person and those associated with them, such as Ukutura into ooUkutura. It is places as an alternative to ova, because it generally is used for people.

As you can see, most noun-class prefixes begin with the letter "o", yet there is also a noun class with just "o" itself. This class encompasses all nouns that begin with "o" but don't have the noun-class prefix of any other noun class. Said differently, if a noun begins with "o", one must make sure it doesn't have a noun-class prefix from any of the other noun classes before concluding that the noun is in the "o" noun class.

Table of Noun Classes

One should note that Otjiherero has no articles, so one must determine concepts such as "the dog" as opposed to "a dog" by context.

Prepositional Pronouns

The prepositions pu, ku, and mu can sometimes be the subject of a sentence, and have their own subject concords similar to other noun classes. Therefore, it can be useful to think of them as the 11th, 12th and 13th noun classes. The division between pu and ku is sometimes blurrly, but some guidelines are included.

Prepositional Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Otjiherero personal pronouns are delineated into six pronouns based on person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and plurality (singular, plural). These divisions are equivalent to the six pronouns as seen in English and Romantic Languages. A comparison with an equivalent table in English is presented for the sake of clarity

Table of Personal Pronouns

Table of Personal Pronouns (English)

Impersonal Pronouns

Each noun class has a corresponding pronoun. From the perspective of an English speaker, for general nouns all of these are equivalent to "it" for singular subjects, and "they" for plural subjects. For the prepositional noun classes, the pronouns are related to "here", "there", and "inside". Additionally, each class has demonstrative pronouns, comparable to "this/these one(s)", "that/those one(s)", and "that/those one(s) over there" in English.

Table of Impersonal Pronouns

Examples

Oyo ye ya. It came.

Indji ye ya. This one came.

Verbs

Like most languages, verbs in Otjiherero conjugate to denote tense, aspect, and modality. However, to know the correct tense, aspect, and modality of the sentence, one cannot simply look at the verb or the subject concord in isolation, but must look at the combination of the two. Unlike English, verbs do not conjugate differently for different subjects.

Regular verbs in Otjiherero have 3 main conjugations for tense

1. The infinitive
2. The verb stem of the infinitive
3. A main alternative conjugation

Infinitive Conjugation

All verbs in their infinitive conjugation begin with oku- and end with the letter -a. Oku- is the verb prefix, and the rest of the verb is the verb stem.

Examples

Okutona to hit

Okuhungira to speak

Okupenduka to wake up / get up

Okurya to eat

Verbs can be used as nouns by simply treating them as nouns with the oku- noun-class prefix.

Example: Okutona kwoye eputi Your hitting is a problem

Verb Stem Conjugation

In some tenses, the verb will conjugate by simply dropping the verb prefix

Examples

Mbi tona I hit

U hungira You speak

Tu penduka We wake up / get up

Ve rya They eat

Main Alternative Conjugation

All verbs have a main alternative conjugation. There are 4 possibilities for how these will be related to the verb stem. The alternative conjugation will either be

1. identical to the verb stem.
2. the -a of the verb stem becomes an -e
3. the -a of the verb stem becomes the vowel from the preceding syllable (called "vowel harmonization")
4. irregular

Examples

Me tono I am hitting (Case 3)

Mo hungire You are speaking (Case 2)

Twa penduka We woke up / got up (Case 1)

Matu ri We are eating (Case 4)

Other Conjugations

Other conjugations occur for location, voice, reflection, behalvatation, and causation.

Location

When an action occurs somewhere else, the directive particle ka is used. In non-command, non-infinitive cases, the verb will be in verb stem form with ka- used as a prefix

Examples

Me katona I am going to go hit

Mo kahungira You are going to go speak

Twa kapenduka We went and woke up / got up

Matu karya We are going to go eat

When used in a command, ka- will again be a prefix to the verb stem, but the last letter of the verb stem changes to -e (regardless of whether or not this is the verb's main alternative conjugation)

Examples

Katone Go hit

Kahungire Go speak

Kapenduke Go wake up / get up

Karye Go eat

When used in an infinitive, -ka- is an infix between the verb prefix and the verb stem

Examples

okukatona to go hit

okukahungira to go speak

okukapenduka to go wake up / get up

okukarya to go eat

Passive Voice

Passive voice conjugations are formed by putting a -w- before the final -a of the verb stem (regardless of tense). Irregular verbs may use a form similar to their main alternative conjugation

Examples

Me tonwa I'm being hit

U hungirwa You are spoken to

Twa riwa We were eaten

To specify an acting object, the passive particle i comes before the object

Examples

Me tonwa i omiṱiri I'm being hit by a teacher

U hungirwa i ovanene You are spoken to by adults

Twa riwa i ozongeyama We were eaten by lions

Reflection

When a subject does something to itself, one uses reflective particle ri to show this. This same effect is achieved in English by adding "-self/-selves" to the object, such as in "herself" or "themselves". One places the reflective particle exactly as one would place the directive particle (see "Location" above). In the case that a verb uses a reflective particle and a directive particle, the directive particle precedes the reflective particle. Unlike the directive particle, the reflective particle does not cause verbs to switch to verb stem form regardless of tense.

Comparisons of Verbs Without and With Reflective Particles

The reflective particle affects preceding concords and directive particles. If any of these parts of speech end with an -a, the -a will be changed to an -e.

Comparisons of Preceding Parts of Speech Without and With Reflective Particles

Notice in the final example the reflective particle influenced both the subject concord and the directive particle.

Benefactive

When an action is being done for or on behalf of someone/something else, a benefactive suffix is sometimes used. There are four benefactive suffixes:

1. -ena
2. -era
3. -ina
4. -ira

The suffix used depends on the end of the verb stem being used. Namely

If the second-to-last vowel of the verb is an -a-, -e-, or -o-, the first letter of the benefactive suffix will be an -e-. Otherwise, it will be an -i-.

If the last consonant of the verb is an m, n, or ṋ, the second letter of the benefactive suffix with be an -n-. Otherwise it will be an -r-.

The benefactive suffix replaces the -a of the verb stem. In tenses where the main alternative verb form would be used, the final -a of the benefactive suffix becomes an -e (regardless of the final letter of the main alternative verb form for that verb).

Examples

Mbi ungura. I work.

Mbi ungurira oPeaceCorpsa. I work for Peace Corps.

Me ziki. I'm cooking.

Me zikire Muharukua. I'm cooking for Muharukua.

Mba nyanda. I played.

Mba nyandere Okorosave. I played for Okorosave.

Causation

When a subject causes the object to do the action, a causatory suffix is added to the verb. The most common suffix is to replace the final -a of the verb witih -isa. However, verbs ending in -uka can sometimes change the -uka to -ura and achieve a similar effect.

Comparisons of normal verbs and causatory verbs

When forming passive voice with causatory verbs, an -iwa is added rather than a -wa

Examples

1. ungurisiwa to be used
2. hitisiwa to be made to enter

Subject Concords (and Tense Construction)

Unlike English, every verb (except when used as a command or infinitive) is preceded by a part of speech called a subject concord. Subject concords are similar to helping (auxiliary) verbs in English, except that they have no meaning without an accompanying verb, whereas helping verbs such as "was" could be used as a verb in certain sentences. Subject concords also inflect to denote tense, aspect, and modality, but unlike Otjiherero verbs, subject concords also inflect to show subject. Because very often the subject concord implies the subject with little or no ambiguity, nouns and pronouns of subjects are often left out in Otjiherero sentences.

In discussing tenses, the concepts of "verb stem conjugation" and "main alternative conjugation" succinctly describe the conjugation of the verb in many cases. For more information on these terms, see the section on "Verbs" above. Also, since subject concords vary depending by subject, some notation from the "Nouns" section is also used.

Subject concords also carry the negation in Otjiherero sentences. In other words, verbs that "didn't happen" use a different subject concord. Note that some tenses exist only positively or negatively.

Positive Subject Concords

Negative Subject Concords

Present and Future Tenses

Otjiherero has five tenses that occur in the present or future time frames. These are the

1. Present Habitual Tense
2. Copulative / Associative Tense
3. Present Progressive / Near Future Tense
4. Indefinite Future Tense
5. Present Perfect Tense

Present Habitual Tense

The present habitual tense is used for actions that occur regularly, emphasizing the ongoing recurrence of the action rather than any occurrence in the present moment.

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + present habitual subject concord + verb stem conjugation

Examples

Mbi honga ovivarero. I teach math.

Maveja u kara kOkahandja. Maveja stays (lives) in Okahandja.

The following formula describes the negation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative present habitual subject concord + main alternative conjugation

Examples

Kave koho ozombanda. They don't wash clothes.

Ami hi ri onyama. I don't eat meat.

Copulative / Associative Present Tense

Otjiherero includes two special words that have unique parts of speech: the copula, ri, and the associative, na. These correlate with the English verbs "to be" and "to have"/"to be with", respectively (but ri and na are not considered verbs).

Regardless of whether these are used in present progressive situations or habitual situations, they always use the habitual subject concord when used in the present tense. This is similar to English, where "I am happy." and "I have a pencil." are much more common than "I'm being happy." and "I'm having a pencil.", even when used in a present progressive context.

Ri finds its main uses in present tense when used to

define a location, or

use certain adverbs

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + habitual subject concord + ri + adverb OR preposition+location OR pi? ("where?")

Examples

Ami mbi ri nawa. I'm not well.

Tjahere u ri pi? Where is Tjahere?

Tjahere u ri kOtjiwarongo. Tjahere is in Otjiwarongo.

Note that when used with the interrogative pi, the ri is sometimes omitted as a contraction

Examples

Tjahere u pi? Where is Tjahere?

Tji pi? Where is it? (the "it" understood by context and knowledge that tji is in the ovi noun class)

The following formula describes the negation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative habitual subject concord + ri + adverb OR preposition+location

Examples

Ami hi ri nawa. I'm not well.

Ovanatje kave ri kOtjiwarongo. The children aren't in Otjiwarongo.

Na is generally used to show association or having. The associative usually prefixes onto the noun, almost always dropping the a if the noun beings with a vowel.

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + habitual subject concord + (n(a)+noun)

Examples

Mbi nozombura omirongo vivari. I have twenty years. (I'm twenty years old.)

U notjipaturure? Do you have the key?

The following formula describes the negation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative habitual subject concord + (n(a)+noun)

Examples

Hi nozombura omirongo vivari. I don't have twenty years. (I'm not twenty years old.)

Ko notjipaturure. You don't have the key.

Present Progressive / Near Future Tense

Verbs that are happening in the current moment are usually conjugated in this tense, though some verbs will be conjugated in the recent past tense. Also, verbs that will take place in the arbitrarily "near" future are conjugated in this tense.

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + present progressive / near future subject concord + main alternative conjugation

Examples

Me ya nambano I'm coming now.

Matu kondo ovirongo We're crossing towns/villages. (travelling/visiting)

The following formula describes the negation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative present progressive / near future subject concord U verb stem conjugation

Examples

Ko nakuyenda? You're not going?

Ozongombe kaze nakunwa kotjitoto. The cows aren't going to drink at the hole.

Indefinite Future Tense

Actions that will take place in some indefinitely distant future are generally conjugated in this tense.

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + indefinite future subject concord + main alternative conjugation

Examples

Mokurooro maatu karya ozombe In the summer, we will go eat berries.

Mee i koAmerica I will go to America.

The following formula describes the negation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative indefinite future subject concord + main alternative conjugation

Examples

Kamaatu zembi We will not forget.

Himee koho ozombanda. I will not wash clothes.

Present Perfect

This tense is only strictly defined for negations. It can be interpreted in English as "haven't/hasn't" or "still haven't/hasn't"

The following formula describes the negation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative present perfect subject concord + verb stem conjugation

Examples

Hi ya zuva. I haven't heard.

Ke ya honga. He hasn't taught.

Past Tenses

In Otjiherero, the majority of tenses occur in the past. These include

1. Recent Past
2. Yesterday's/Completed Past
3. Intermediately Distant Past
4. Very Distant Past
5. General Non-Recent Past
6. Past Continuous
7. Past Habitual
8. Copulative / Associative Past

Recent Past

The recent past tense generally includes most verbs that were performed earlier in the same day.

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + general past subject concord + main alternative conjugation

Examples

Simbuli wa i kOpuwo. Simbuli went to Opuwo.

Mba zuu. I understood.

Unlike English, some verbs that are still presently occurring will still use the recent past tense. One can interpret this as a verb that captures an initiation or transition occurring at the beginning of the action, and that the action is grammatically understood to still be taking place if conjugated in the recent past tense; however, similar verbs will not always be conjugated in the same tense.

Examples

Eye wa rara. He/She is sleeping. (He/She fell asleep)

Mba handja. I'm mad. (I became mad.)

yet some similar verbs are conjugated in the present progressive tense

Me vanga. I want.

Mave tira. They are afraid.

There is no negation for this tense, as negations will either migrate into the present perfect or yesterday's / completed past tense.

Yesterday's / Completed Past

Verbs performed a day or a few days ago usually find themselves conjugated in this tense.

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + general past subject concord + verb stem conjugation with behalvatory suffix(!)

(!) Some irregular verbs, such as okurya, will not use the verb stem conjugation. See the subsection on behalvatory suffixes for instructions on how to create this suffix.

Examples

Ove wa manene oviungura vyoye." You finished your work.

Twa kunine ozomiriva. We planted corn.

Also, verbs that use the recent past conjugation to indicate that they are presently occurring will use yesterday's / completed past to show they are complete, even if they happened in the current day.

Examples

Ovanatje va rarere. The children slept. / The children fell asleep. (but they're not asleep anymore) (earlier today)

Mba handjere. I was mad. / I became mad. (but I'm not mad anymore) (earlier today)

There is no negation for this tense, as negations for non-recent past will migrate to the "general non-recent past" tense.

Intermediately Distant Past

Actions not performed yesterday-ish yet not being emphasized as very distantly past will fall in this intermediate category.

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + general past subject concord + verb stem conjugation

Examples

Mba honga. I taught. (not yesterday, but not in the far, far past.)

Ovanatje va koha ozombanda . The children washed clothes (not yesterday, but not in the far, far past.)

There is no negation for this tense, as negations for non-recent past will migrate to the "general non-recent past" tense.

Very Distant Past

This tense represents the greatest possible emphasis on happening long ago. The formation of this tense is exactly the same as that of yesterday's past, but the verbs will have an up-accent on the final vowel. There is no negation for this tense, as negations for non-recent past will migrate to the "general non-recent past" tense.

General Non-Recent Past

This tense only exists in negation, and encompasses the negations of the "Yesterday's / Completed Past", "Intermediately Distant Past", and "Verb Distant Past" tenses.

The following formula describes the negation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative habitual subject concord + verb stem conjugation with behalvatory suffix(!)

(!) Some irregular verbs, such as okurya, will not use the verb stem conjugation. See the subsection on behalvatory suffixes for instructions on how to create this suffix.

Examples

Hi tupikire. I didn't run.

Ovanatje kave nyandere. The children didn't play.

Past Continuous

To emphasize the extended temporal nature of an action in the past, the past continuous tense is used. This would be the same as saying "I was playing." instead of "I played."

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + general past subject concord + ri + (a- + the subject concord you'd use if you were doing the action right now. Thus usually the present progressive subject concord, but for some verbs this would be the general past subject concord.) + main alternative conjugation

Examples

Mba ri ame nyanda. I was playing.

Ovanatje va ri amave koho ozombanda. The children were washing clothes.

This tense is especially useful for saying that something happened while something else was happening.

Examples

Mama wandje we ndji tonene ongoze tji mba ri ame i. My mother called me while I was leaving.

Mba zikire omariro womuhuka omunene ove tji wa ri awa rara. I cooked breakfast while you were sleeping.

For the 3rd person singular, certain contractions may be used.

Kauarive wa ri ama kondjisa omusuko. Kauarive was flirting with the young girl. (theoretical non-contracted sentence)

Kauarive wa ri aa kondjisa omusuko. (partially contracted)

Kauarive wa raa kondjisa omusuko. (standard form)

The conjunction ngunda ("while") is also used in the past continuous tense.

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + ngunda + (a- + the subject concord you'd use if you were doing the action right now. Thus usually the present progressive subject concord, but for some verbs this would be the general past subject concord.) + main alternative conjugation

In other words, ngunda can replace the general past subject concord and the ri.

Examples

Mama wandje we ndji tonene ongoze ngunda ame i. My mother called me while I was leaving.

Mba zikire omariro womuhuka omunene ove ngunda awa rara. I cooked breakfast while you were sleeping.

The following formula describes the negation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + past copulative subject concord + ri + (a- + the subject concord you'd use if you were doing the action right now. Thus usually the present progressive subject concord, but for some verbs this would be the general past subject concord.) + main alternative conjugation

Examples

Himba ri ame nyanda. I wasn't playing.

Ovanatje kava ri amave koho ozombanda. The children weren't washing clothes.

Past Habitual

Actions that once took place habitually but are no longer taking place habitually fall into the past habitual tense. This can be compared to "used to" in English.

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + past habitual subject concord + verb stem conjugation

Examples

Ozongombe aaze kara mokuti. Cows used to live in the wilderness.

Ami ee nyanda, nambano hi nyanda rukwao. I used to play, now I don't play anymore.

The following formula describes the negation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative past habitual subject concord + verb stem conjugation

Examples

Ozongombe kaaze kara mokuti. Cows didn't used to live in the wilderness.

Ami hee nyanda, nambano mbi nyanda. I didn't used to play, now I play.

Copulative / Associative Past

To use the Otjiherero copula ri in the past tense, the copulative past conjugation is used (unless in the past habitual). This is required when

Using past continuous (described above)

Using ri to identify one noun with another noun in the past

Using na/n- to show association in the past

The following formula describes the formation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + general past subject concord + ri + (noun OR (na/n-+noun))

Examples

Mba ri omiṱiri. I was a teacher.

Mba ri nokati. I had a stick.

The following formula describes the negation of this tense: (optional pronoun/name/noun) + negative copulative past subject concord + ri + (noun OR (na/n-+noun))

Examples

Himba ri omiṱiri. I wasn't a teacher.

Himba ri nokati. I didn't have a stick.

In the case of the copula ri in a past habitual tense, the conjugation proceeds in the habitual tense style.

Examples

Ee ri omiṱiri. I used to be teacher.

Hee ri nokati. I didn't used to have a stick.

Object Concords

Other than when used in possessive determiners, pronouns are rarely used as objects. Instead, Otjiherero speakers use object concords, which replace object pronouns with no change in meaning. Each personal pronoun and noun class has its own object concord

Object concords

Note that these are the same as the present habitual subject concords for each noun class respectively, as well as some impersonal pronouns. The excepted noun class is class 1s, where the object concord corresponds with that of the third person singular personal pronoun, eye.

Unless involved in a sentence with a verb in the infinitive form, object concords situate themselves directly before the verb. When the verb is in the infinitive form, the object concord is infixed between the oku- and the verb stem. If a directive particle is also being used, the object concord is infixed between the directive particle and the verb stem.

An important grammatical consideration is that object concords are one of several grammatical pieces in Otjiherero that cause -as of preceding parts of speech to change into -es. They are able to affect subject concords, directive particles, and relative concords.

Examples

Ove we ndji pe ovikurya. You gave me food.

Matu ku vatere. We are helping you.

Me mu raere. I/He/She will tell him/her/you pl..

We ze munu pi? Where did you see them? (some mutually understood noun from the ozo- noun class)

Oviṋa vyoye matu vi paha. We are looking for your things.

[Okambihi] mbe ke zepa. I killed it [the cat].

[Okambihi] me vanga okukezepa. I want to kill it [the cat].

[Ngurije] me sokumupaha. I must look for her [Ngurije]

[Okambihi] me vanga okukekezepa. I want to go kill it [the cat].

[Ngurije] me sokukemupaha. I must go look for her [Ngurije].

Omundu ngwe ku tono u ri pi? Where is the person who hit you?

Note the ambiguity created in the third example by the inclusion of an object concord. It is possible that native speakers could determine the exact meaning of the sentence by the tone of me and mu. For non-native speakers or written Otjiherero, one can gain clarification by including pronouns.

Eye, Ami me mu raere. I will tell him/her.

Relative Concords

Relative concords cause a verb or verb phrase to act as an adjective. They are comparable to "that", "which", and "who" in English. They come after the subject and replace the subject concord of the verb phrase.

Basic Relative concords

Basic

Basic relative concords come after the subject and replace the subject concord of the verb phrase. If there is a copula ri, associative na or both, they come after the relative concord.

Compare

Omuatje wa tono ombwa yandje The child hit my dog

Omuatje ngwa tono ombwa yandje The child who hit my dog

Examples

Ovanatje mbe nyanda otjimbere ve ri pi? Where are the children that play soccer?

Toneye ozondana nḓu maze nyamu! Hit the calves that are breast-feeding!

Ovandu mbe nozombanda mave nyanda. The people who have clothes are playing.

Ovanadu mba ri nozombanda mave nyanda. The people who had clothes are playing.

Orukuṋe ndu ri pekuma ru rira ndu ri pezuko. The firewood which is in the wood holder becomes (the wood) which is in the fire.

Different Subject

If the subject of the action in the relative verb phrase is different from the original subject, the following formula is used:

[First word of the present progressive relative concord] + [tense-appropriate subject concord for the relative subject]

Compare

Ombwa ndja suvera The dog that loves (Dog is the initial subject and the subject that "loves" in the relative verb phrase)

Ombwa ndji mba suvera The dog that I love (Dog is the initial subject, but "I" is the subject that "loves" in the relative verb phrase)

Examples

Ryanga u mune oviṋa mbi u zuva uriri. Visit around so that you can see the things which you only hear about.

Oove omundu ngu me vanga. You are the person who I like.

Negation

To negate in the present habitual, simply put the negatory particle ha after the habitual relative concord. The verb is conjugated in the main alternative form.

To negate in the present progressive, simply replace the second word of the present progressive relative concord with hi naku-. The verb is conjugated in the verb stem form

To negate with na or ri in the present, insert he between the habitual relative concord and the na or ri.

Examples

Omuatje ngu ha ungura ka vangwa. The child who doesn't work isn't wanted.

Ami me tono omuatje ngu hi nakuungura. I'm going to hit the child who isn't working.

Ami me tono omuatje ngu he nozombanda. I'm going to hit the child who doesn't have clothes.

Ame me tono omuatje ngu he ri metuwo. I'm going to hit the child who isn't in the room.

Adjectives

Similar to Otjiherero nouns, all standard Otjiherero adjectives have a noun-class prefix and an adjective stem. Unlike nouns, adjectives do not have invariable prefixes that are essential to their identity as a word. Instead, adjectives simply inherit the noun-class prefix of the noun they are describing. Thus, since a part of an adjectives depends on the subject it's modifying, standard adjectives cannot be written without implying a subject (or at the most, a possible set of subjects). However, since the adjective stem remains the same regardless of subject, it is useful to use adjective stems as a way to record adjectives.

Common Adjective Stems

Standard Adjectives

Standard adjectives usually come after nouns, and consist of a noun-class prefix and an adjective stem.

Examples

Tara omundu omunene. Look at the big person.

Tara ekopi enene. Look at the big cup.

Tara orutuwo orunene. Look at the big spoon.

Comparatives

Unlike English, adjectives themselves aren't declined to show comparison, such as "big" becoming "bigger". Instead, the preposition pu is added as a prefix to the noun which the initial noun is being compared to. Pu will almost always omit the u when prefixed to a noun beginning with a vowel, which most do. Exceptions include loanwords that are proper nouns.

Examples

Ombwa onene pomuautje. The dog is bigger than the child.

Tjiuri u nozondunge puMojao. Tjiuri is more clever than Mojao.

Otjitarazu omure pEtengarindi. December is longer than February. (Here the adjective uses the omu- prefix in order imply omueze, meaning "month")

Superlatives

Superlatives can be formed in two ways. The first way is to double the last two syllables of the adjective stem, or in the case of single syllable adjective stems, simply double the adjective stem

Examples

Muniehi omurere moklasa. Muniehi is the tallest in the class.

Eye wa haama motjihavero otjinenenene. He/She sat in the biggest chair.

Owami omunazondungendunge. I'm the most clever.

The other approach to superlatives is formed just like comparatives, except tjinene is added after the adjective, and a form of "all" placed after the compared group. While these may arguably be comparatives, the addition of tjinene indicates a unique form.

Examples

Munieji omure tjinene povanatje avehe moklasa. Muniehi is taller than all the children in the class.

Eye wa haama motjihavero otjinene tjinene povihavero avihe. She/He sat in the chair bigger than all the chairs.

Owami omunazondunge tjinene povandu avehe. I'm more clever than all the people.

Using Relative Concords

One may quickly notice that Otjiherero has very few adjectives compared to English. Similar to English relative concords are used to modify a noun when the adjective doesn't exist.

Compare

Ombwa ya urwa The dog is tired (There is no adjective stem for "tired" in Otjiherero, but there is a verb)

Ombwa ndja urwa The tired dog / The dog which is tired (Using the relative concord ndja, "tired" acts as an adjective rather than a verb)

Adverbs

Unlike many languages, Otjiherero does not have a formula for changing adjectives to adverbs. Compare this to English where many adjectives can become adverbs by adding "-ly".

Selected Important Adverbs

Extended Adverbs

For situations where a verb, adjective, or adverb must be modified in a way that no existing adverb allows, an extended adverb may be created by using the following formula

verb + a- + [subject concord and verb modifying the original verb]

This is comparable to "while" in English. Note that verbs normally use recent past subject concords to describe the present tense will use a recent past concord here as well. All other verbs will use present progressive subject concords.

Examples

Ami mbe mu undura amba pindike. I pushed him angrily. / I pushed him while angry.

Ove we mu undura awa pindike. You pushed him angrily. / You pushed him while angry.

Eye we mu undura a pinkike. She pushed him angrily. / She pushed him while angry. (notice that eye/omu- has this grammatical exception for past tense)

Ami mbe ku munu ame tupuka. I saw you while I was running.

Ove we ndji munu amo tupuka. You saw me while you were running.

Conjunctive Adverbs

One important conjunctive adverb in Otjiherero is nu, meaning "then" or "and then". If followed by a word that starts with a vowel, the nu is often dropped, and the n- added a prefix to the word. If followed by wa or we, the past subject concord for 3rd person singular personal nouns/pronouns, the u and w are dropped, and the words combine to na or ne

Examples

Ovandu vevari va vanga okuvaka, nowo [nu owo] ave kamburwa. Two people wanted to steal, and then they were caught.

Omuatje wa ri ama tupuka na [nu wa] u. The child was running and then fell.

Omukazendu wa toora omuatje ne mu pukata. The woman picked up the child and sat him on her lap.

Determiners

Otjiherero makes use of the following determiners:

Demonstratives

Possessives

Quantifiers

Cardinal Numbers

Ordinal Numbers

Most notably omitted when compared to English are articles, which are compensated for by context or demonstratives

Demonstratives

In Otjiherero, each noun class has its own demonstratives, and the demonstrative corresponds to the noun class of the noun it refers to. Some noun classes have multiple demonstratives in use due to generational differences or regional differences, and these are represented in the table below by fields with multiple entries. The oru- and otu- classes specifically have a wide range of demonstratives in use, and not all possibilities are listed.

Demonstratives by Proximity and Nounclass

Demonstratives can be positioned before or after their corresponding noun. When positioned after, they are used exactly as in the table above. When written before the noun, an i- is prefixed to the demonstrative.

Examples

omuatje ngwi this child

ingwi omuatje this child

otjiṋa ho that thing

iho otjiṋa that thing

ozondundu nḓena" those hills over there

inḓena ozondundu" those hills over there

A common usage of demonstratives in Otjiherero involves placing them directly after a corresponding pronoun. This creates a new meaning, along the lines of "Here it is / There it is / There it is over there" or "It's this one here / It's that one there / It's that one over there"

Examples

"Ongombe i ri pi?" "Oyo ndji." "Where is the cow?" "Here it is."

"Simbuli u ri pi?" "Eye ngo." "Where is Simbuli?" "There she is."

"Zaongara u ri pi?" "Owami ngwi." "Where is Zaongara?" "I'm here."

Demonstratives can stand alone as demonstrative pronouns. See the pronouns section above.

Possessives

Possessive determiners are composed of two parts: a possessive concord prefixed to a possessive suffix. Possessive concords correspond to the noun class of the noun being possessed, while the possessive suffix corresponds to the noun class of the possessor.

Possessive Concords (similar to "of")

Exception: omuṱena (opposite-sex sibling) has an irregular possessive concord, using kwa- instead of wa-

The possessive suffix can take four different forms, creating four different classes of possessive determiners

1. Personal Pronoun Possessive Determiners
2. Proper Noun Possessive Determiners
3. Common Noun Possessive Determiners
4. Impersonal Pronoun Possessive Determiners

Personal Pronoun Possessive Determiners

Personal pronoun possessive determiners are possessive determiners with a personal pronoun (or noun from the first noun class) doing the possessing. For these, the suffix is a personal possessive pronoun.

Personal Possessive Suffixes

The final a of the possessive concord is dropped when the possessive determiner is formed. Also note that possessors in the first noun class, omu/ova are treated as eye/ova respectively.

Examples

Eta embo randje. Give me my book (the book of mine).

Eye nomukazendu we. He and his wife (the wife of his).

Omurumendu nomukazendu we. A man and his wife (the wife of his).

Ovaherero nozongombo zawo. The Hereros and their goats (the goats of theirs).

Proper Noun Possessive Determiners

When a proper noun is doing the possessing, the possessive concord is simply prefixed to the proper noun. Two types of inflection are possible:

1. If the proper noun has a noun class (example: Okahandja) the first letter of the proper noun is dropped
2. If the proper noun does not have a noun class, no letters are dropped

Examples

embo raAnna Anna's book (the book of Anna)

ovandu vaKahandja people of Okahandja

omundu waMama Mother's person (meaning you're related)

ozongombo zaTate Father's goats (goats of Father)

Common Noun Possessive Determiners

When a common noun is doing the possessing, the -a of the possessive concord is dropped.

Example

otjipaturure tjomberoo office key (key of the office)

Impersonal Pronoun Possessive Determiners

When an impersonal pronoun is doing the possessing, the -o of the impersonal pronoun is dropped.

Example

otjipaturure tjayo its key ("it" quite possibly referring to "office", as "omberoo" is in the o- noun class and would thus use the oyo pronoun)

Quantifiers

Important quantifiers in Otjiherero include

1. tjiva some 2. -arwe other, another, different 3. -kwao another 4. o- -ngi many, most 5. a- -he all

Some

Tjiva expresses the idea of "some" in Otjiherero. Tjiva positions itself after the noun like a standard adjective, but does not inflect.

Example

Mba munu ozongombe tjiva. I saw some cows.

Other, another, different

-arwe expresses the idea of "other", "another" or "different" in Otjiherero. -arwe is prefixed with the possessive prefix of the noun it modifies, with the a- of the possessive prefix dropped. -arwe is similar to -kwao, but -arwe can be used to imply difference, where as -kwao almost always means "another".

Examples

omundu warwe another person / other person / a different person

eyuva rarwe another day / other day (not today)

Another

-kwao expresses the idea of "another" in Otjiherero. It inflects as a standard adjective. -arwe is similar to -kwao, but -arwe can be used to imply difference, where as -kwao almost always means "another".

-arwe and -kwao can be confusing for an English speaker because we often use "another" for two very different ideas. One use involves addition, while another involves replacement.

Compare

Ngatu ungure eyuva ekwao. Let's work another day. (in addition to today)

Ngatu ungure eyuva rarwe. Let's work another day. (instead of today)

Many, most

o- -ngi expresses the idea of "many" (and sometimes "most") in Otjiherero. It does not inflect as a standard adjective; rather, the present habitual subject concord of the modified noun is infixed between the o- and the -ngi.

Examples ovandu ovengi many people otumwe otungi many mosquitoes

All

a- -he expresses the idea of "all" in Otjiherero. It does not inflect as a standard adjective; rather, the present habitual subject concord of the modified noun is infixed between the a- and the -he.

Examples ovandu avehe all people otumwe atuhe all mosquitoes aruhe always, usually (short for oruveze aruhe, "all of the time")

1 through 5

For numbers 1 through 5, cardinal numbers work like standard adjectives, except number stems are prefixed with the present habitual subject concord of the noun they modify instead of the noun-class prefix.

The ozo- class inflects differently. Instead of being prefixed, the number stem stands alone. Moreover, number stems starting with v- change to mb- and number stems starting with t- change to nd-.

The number 4 has a few irregular inflections

For the oma- noun class, 4 is prefixed with ya-, thus yane

For the ova- noun class, 4 is prefixed with va-, thus vane

For the ozo- noun class, 4 is prefixed with i-, thus ine

When using numbers in and of and themselves (not modifying anything), they are treated as if modifying a word in the ozo- class, except an i- is always prefixed (even beyond 5). For example, the first five numbers are imwe, imbari, indatu, ine, indano

Examples

omundu umwe one person

omapanga yetano five friends

ozongombe ndatu three cows

ozongombo ine four goats

imwe, imbari, indatu, ine, indano... one, two, three, four, five... (counting for the sake of counting)

6 through 10

Numbers 6 through 10 do not inflect. Numbers 6 through 8 are simply 1 through 3 as if inflected for the ozo- noun class, with hambo- prefixed.

Examples

omambo hambombari seven books

ozongombo hambombari seven goats

11 through 19

Numbers 11 through 19 are simply formed through addition. For example, 15 would be "ten and five". Note that the number in the unit's place still inflects as it normally would if it stood alone.

Examples

otumwe omurongo na tutatu thirteen mosquitoes

ovirongo omurongo na vivari twelve towns

20 through 99

Numbers 20 through 99 are also formed through addition. Multiples of 10 are created by treating 10 as a noun, and modifying it with a number 1 through 9.

Examples of multiples of 10

Examples

ozongombe omirongo vitano na ndatu fifty-three cows

ovandu omirongo muvyu na vetano ninety-five people

100 and beyond

Numbers 100 and beyond are formed through addition, with each place value modified as a noun to create its multiples. Like English, place values of "thousand" and beyond are modified up to hundreds in order to create three places (example: thousands, ten thousands, hundred thousands; millions, ten millions, hundred millions)

Examples

ozongombe omayovi hambombari, omasere yane nomirongo vivari na imwe seven thousand four hundred twenty-one cows

ovandu engete omayovi omasere yane omasere yevari nomirongo vitatu na vane one million four hundred thousand two hundred and thirty-four people

Ordinal Numbers

The following formula converts cardinal numbers to ordinal numbers

o + [present habitual concord of ordered noun] + tja + [number stem]

The exceptions are "first" and "last". These are constructed as standard adjectives, with -tenga as the adjective stem for "first", and -senina as the adjective stem for "last".

Examples

embo etenga first book

oruveze orutjavari second time

ombapira oitjahambombari seventh paper

eyuva esenina last day

Negative Prefix

In Otjiherero, the prefix ka- can be used with nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the infinitive form. It functions similar to "not" or "it's not a". When being prefixes onto a work, the first vowel of the original word is dropped if it began with a vowel. There is no ambiguity with the directive prefix ka- because the directive prefix is only prefixed to verb stems, whereas the negative prefix will prefix to the beginning of the infinitive verb.

Examples:

kangombe it's not a cow / is not a cow

kamuatje it's not a child / is not a child

ongombe kanene the cow is not big / the not-big cow

Kanao. It's not like that (Nao. = like that)

Kakuhepa! Not thank you! / You weren't supposed to say thank you!

Negative Particle

Similar to the negative prefix, the negative particle ha adds negation. It can be thought of as similar to "Not" "Non-" "Un-" "In-". It is normally used as an infix in adjectives and their derivatives (placed between the noun-class prefix and the noun stem) or as a particle before verbs in sentences asking "why" or with relative concords.

Compare:

1. -kohoke clean
2. oukohoke cleanliness
3. -hakohoke unclean
4. ouhakohoke uncleanliness

Examples:

Ongwaye ombi tji i ha tuka? Why doesn't the ostrich fly?

Omuatje ngu ungura ongu vangwa, ngu ha ungura ka vangwa. The child who works is the one who is wanted, [the child] who doesn't work isn't wanted

Nominal Prefix

The nominal prefix o- can be added to words to make them more independent. Main uses occur with personal pronouns, personal and impersonal noun-class possessives, relative concords, and interrogatives. One can think of this in 2 ways.

cause the word to become a full noun

adds a sense of "it is / is it?" or "they are the ones / are they?" to the word

Compare:

1. ozongombe zeṋe which cows (incomplete sentence)
2. Ozongombe ozeṋe. Which cows are they? / The cows are which ones? (complete sentence)

Compare:

1. uṋe who (incomplete sentence)
2. Ouṋe? Who is it (complete sentence)

Compare:

1. ekori raTate Father's hat (incomplete sentence)
2. Ekori oraTate. It is Father's hat. (complete sentence)

Examples:

Owami ngwi. I'm here (notice that for the special case of ami, a -w- is added)

Oove omundu ngu me vanga. You are the person who I like.

Omuatje ngu ungura ongu vangwa, ngu ha ungura ka vangwa. The child who works is the one who is wanted, [the child] who doesn't work isn't wanted.

Copulative Particle

The copula in Otjiherero is ri. It functions similar to "be/is/am/are" in English, though it is not a verb. Common uses include identifying with adverbs, querying location, and specifying location. It also is used for identifying two nouns in the past, as seen in the "Copulative / Associative Past" above. Lastly, it comes up in the past continuous tense.

Examples:

Mbi ri nawa. I am fine.

Tjikuru u ri pi? Where is Grandma?

Eye u ri koskole. He/She is at school.

Associative Particle

The associative in Otjiherero is na. It functions similar to "have" in English, thought it is not a verb. It is generally prefixed to a following noun, and drops its a- if the following noun begins with a vowel.

Examples:

Mbi nozombura omirongo vivari. I'm twenty years old. / I have twenty years.

Tjiuri u nozondunge. Tjiuri is clever. / Tjiuri has intelligence.

U notjipaturure? Do you have the key?

Mba ri nokati. I had a stick.

Non-Contrasting

The non-contrasting conjunction in Otjiherero is na, similar to "and" in English.

If the following word begins with a vowel, the u will often be dropped and the n- prefixed to the following word. Alternatively, sometimes the vowel of the following word is dropped, and the na- is prefixed to the word.

Examples

Anna na Vehambana va ire kOpuwo. Ann and Vehambana went to Opuwo.

Anna nepanga re va ire kOpuwo. Ann and her friend went to Opuwo.

Contrasting

The most fundamental contrasting conjunction is posi ya or posi ya kutja, meaning "but". Other forms include mara (loan word from Afrikaans); nungwari, which is more similar to "however"; and nangwari, which is similar to "however"/"actually".

Examples

Twa vanga okuyenda pamwe, posi ya we ndji esa po. We wanted to go together, but she left me here.

Omuatje we ire kondjuwo, nagwari otjipaturure ka ri natjo. The child went to the house, however he didn't have the key.

Alternative

The conjunction for alternative in Otjiherero is poo, meaning "or".

Example

Oove Maria poo oove Anna? Are you Maria or are you Anna?

Consequential

The consequential conjunction in Otjiherero is okutja, meaning "so"/"therefore".

Hi nakuvanga okuvera, okutja hi nakurya oLuncheon Rolla. I don't want to get sick, therefore I'm not going to eat a Luncheon Roll.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Selected Important Subordinating Conjunctions

Correlative Conjunctions

Selected Important Correlative Conjunctions

Prepositions

Otjiherero contains an assortment of prepositions, with pu, ku, and mu being the most important.

Selected Prepositions

Selected Prepositions

Pu, Ku, and Mu

Pu, ku, and mu have special applications. Note that it is difficult to define the difference between pu and ku, and the provided definitions will not always hold.

Special Prepositions

What makes pu, ku, and mu special is that they can behave like quasi nouns. When used this way, they are able to have subject concords, demonstratives, relative concords, and conditional concords.

Prepositional Subject Concords

These create situations similar to "there are" or "here is" in English

Examples

Mondjuwo mamu nyanda ovanatje. In the house there are children playing.

Maku wondjo omundu omure. There walks a tall person.

Pomuvero pa rara omuatje. At the door there sleeps a child.

Prepositional Demonstratives

Example

Indjo mba. Come here.

Prepositional Relative Concords

Example

Omahongero, mu mwa za ozomiṱiri zetu. Education, in which our teachers come from.

Prepositional Conditional Concords

Example

Andaku ovandu ve ṱa nomana, katjaku kara ozofano. If people died with [their] names, there wouldn't be surnames.

Interrogatives

Otjiherero contains an assortment of interrogatives, with ongwaye (why) being the most unusual.

Selected Interrogatives

Selected Interrogatives

Ongwaye

Ongwaye has two uses. The first is a stand-alone word asking "what?", which could mean, for example, "what did you say?" or "what are you laughing at?". The second use is to ask "why?" questions. In these circumstances, it will nearly always be paired with tji. If the subject noun or pronoun is included in the sentence, it will come between ongwaye and tji. These constructions vary greatly between a positive question and a negative question.

Positive

Positive constructions simply begin the sentence with ongwaye and tji. Note that for the personal 3rd person, the recent past subject concord wa will combine with tji to form tja, and the habitual subject concord u will combine with tji to form tje.

Examples

Ongwaye tji mo tjiti nao? Why are you (sing.) doing that?

Ongwaye tji mamu pahere omunamuinyo movaṱi? Why are you (pl.) searching for a living person amongst dead people?

Ongwaye tje tupuka? Why does he run?

Ongwaye tja tupuka? Why did he run?

Ongwaye tji ma tupuka? Why is he running?

Negative

For negatives in the recent past, use the following formula:

ongwaye + [optional noun/pronoun] + tji + [habitual subject concord] + hi ya + [verb in "verb-stem" conjugation]

Example

Ongwaye tje hi ya zika? Why did he not cook? (recently)

For negatives in the non-recent past, use the following formula:

ongwaye + [optional noun/pronoun] + tji + [negative particle ha] + [verb in "yesterdays past" conjugation]

Example

Ongwaye tje ha zikire? Why did he not cook? (non-recently)

For negatives in the habitual tense, use the following formula:

ongwaye + [optional noun/pronoun] + tji + [habitual subject concord] + [negative particle ha] + [verb in "main alternative" conjugation]

Example

Ongwaye ombo tji i ha tuka? Why doesn‘t the ostrich fly?

For negatives in the present progressive tense, use the following formula:

ongwaye + [optional noun/pronoun] + tji + [habitual subject concord] + hi naku–

Examples

Ongwaye tji u hi nakuyenda? Why are you not going?

Ongwaye tje hi nakutupuka? Why is he not running?

Other Moods

As with all other languages, Otjiherero includes a variety of grammatical moods to express the speaker's attitude toward what they are saying.

Conditional Mood

The conditional mood of Otjiherero can be subdivided into three distinct subtypes. These would all be constructed with "if" in English, so English speakers often struggle to internalize and implement correctly these three types.

Factual Predictive

The factual and predictive conditional indicator in Otjiherero is tji. It functions as "if/when" in English. Whether it functions more strongly as an "if" or a "when" is determined through context. Sentences are constructed similarly to English, except that if a noun/pronoun is included in the conditional statement, tji will come directly after the noun and before the subject concord. Notice that negative forms will take the grammatical structure of "why" questions formed with the interrogative ongwaye + tji, as outlined above.

Examples

Matu hakaene ove tji mo vanga okurihonga Otjiherero. We will meet if/when you want to learn Otjiherero.

Tji u hi nakuvanga, o ndji pe. If you don‘t want (to give me), don‘t give me.

Speculative

Speculative moods (speculating as to how things would be or would have been) are formed through a form of andakuzu and a conditional concord. As such, the speculated condition will always be in the past or present tense, though the consequence could be in any tense

Conditional Concords

Note that a less common, older style of positive conditional concords replaces the initial vowel with i-. For example, etje would be itje, otjo would be itjo, etc.

Examples

Andakuzu kaweṱe mbu twa munu ihi otjipuka, eṋe katjamu kara na tji mamu ramba. If we hadn't seen this wild animal, you wouldn't have had (anything) which you chased.

Tjikuru, Oritjatano, tji mba ire kOkakarara, andaku ove we ndji pere ovimariva, e(tje) kaeterera oruhere. Grandma, Friday, when I went to Okakarara, if you would‘ve given me money, I would‘ve went and brought along porridge.

Ripura uri, kutja eṱe omahupiro wetu atjaye rira tjike andakuzu eṱe katu hungire. Just think, that us our lifestyles would become what if we didn‘t talk. (Just think, what would our life be like if we didn‘t talk.)

Andakuzu eṱe tu noskole, atjatu kahongisa omuatje wetu. If we had school (had education / had finished school), we would go make our child be taught (probably means, like, send him to a good school in Windhoek).

Also, be aware that sometimes andakuzu gets used two times, without the use of a conditional concord.

Andakuzu me riyozike omuini, andakuzu ondjozikiro yandje katjiṋa. If I honor myself, my honor would be nothing.

Worth noting is that the conditional concord does not change with tense. Thus, the tense of the consequence must be determined through context. The following examples, being spoken by a volunteer during Term 2, illustrate this. In these examples, one would not know the tense of the consequence unless it was previously established that the conversation took place in term 2.

Andakuzu hee vanga okuhonga moTerm1, etje yaruka moTerm1. If I wasn‘t wanting to teach during Term 1, I would‘ve gone back in Term 1.

Andakuzu hee vanga okuhonga moTerm1, etje yaruka ndino. If I wasn‘t wanting to teach during Term 1, I would be going back today. [perhaps isn't allowed to go back until term 2, but had to decide during Term 1 whether or not to go back]

Andakuzu hee vanga okuhonga moTerm1, etje yaruka moTerm3. If I wasn‘t wanting to teach during Term 1, I would be going back in Term 3. [perhaps isn't allowed to go back until term 3, but had to decide during Term 1 whether or not to go back]

Dubitative

The dubitative mood indicates doubt. This mood is constructed by beginning the clause with ndovazu, ndaazu, ndeeri, or tjinangara. They are all nearly equivalent, with ndeeri sounding more childish, and tjinangara sounding more poetic.

Examples

Tjinangara oOve Omuna waNdjambi, raera omawe nga kutja ye rire ozomboroto. If it‘s really true that You are the Son of God, tell these stones to become bread.

Tjinangara oOve Omuna waNdjambi, rurumina pehi, orondu Omatjangewa... If it‘s really true that You are the Son of God, throw yourself to the ground, for the scriptures...

Ndaazu ove mo i, okutja ami hi nakuyenda. If it‘s really true that you are going, I‘m not going.

Ndeeri ove mo i, ami noho me i. If it‘s really true that you are going, I‘m going too.

Ongwaye tjoo (tji+wa+ri+amo) paha opencila mondjaṱu ndeeri kai mo? Why were you searching for a pencil in the bag if it really wasn‘t in? [as in, the student told you earlier that the pencil wasn't in the bag, and now she's saying she was looking for it in the bag]

Subjunctive

The subjunctive mood in Otjiherero is used to compose phrases such as "let us", "let it", "may it", or "it should". The subjunctive mood is constructed by simply replacing the subject concord with a subjunctive concord. The verb uses a special conjugation, using the verb stem conjugation with the final -a replaced with -e.

Subjunctive Concords

Note that the subjunctive for ami is used seemingly exclusively for questions. In these contexts, the meaning is similar to "can I?", "should I?" or "shall I?"

Examples

Ngatu yende. Let's go. (in speech often sounds like Kati yende.)

Ngatu lese nokutjanga mOtjiherero. Let's read and write in Otjiherero.

Ozombapira ngaze hindwe. Let the papers be sent.

Nge ye. Let him/her come. (not Nga ye." because ye is a form of okuya, which is a special verb in that it changes the -a of proceeding concords to -e)

Ngape tjitwe nao. May it be done that way.

Hi ye? Shall I come?

Hi ete? Shall I give?

Hi ku vatere? Can I help you?

Absolute Negative

The absolute negative mood is similar to "never" or "ever" in English. There are two distinct formulas for the absolute negative mood

Negative habitual subject concord + na + pu + positive past subject concord

Examples

Otjiṋa tji tja sana ngwi katji na pu tja tjitirwe moIsrael! Something like him has never happened in Israel!

Ozongu ndatu nḓo kaze na pu ze kemumuna rukwao. Those three bears never went and saw her again.

The other formula goes as follows For personal pronouns or noun classes: Negative habitual subject concord+naa + positive past subject concord. For non-personal noun classes: kanaa + positive past subject concord

Examples

Ami hinaa mba ire. I never went.

Eye kenaa wea ire. He never went.

Epanga kanaa ra ire. The friend never went.

Otjipuka kanaa ya ire. The wild animal never went.

Hinaa mba ri nokati. Nambano mbi nokati. I never had a stick. Now I have a stick.

Intentional

The intentional mood is similar to "so that" or "in order to" in English. The intentional phrase follows a statement, question, or command to expand on the intent.

The formula for positive intentional sentences is as follows: [Statement, question, or command] + [positive intentional concord] + [verb in verb stem form, with final -a replaced with -e]

The formula for negative intentional sentences is as follows: [Statement, question, or command] + [negative intentional concord] + [negative particle ha] + [verb in verb main alternative form]

Intentional Concords

Note that, excepting 3rd person singular personal positive concords (eye and omu personal classes), the positive intentional concords are the same as their class's positive habitual subject concords. For all negative concords, the negative intentional concords are the same as their class's positive progressive subject concords, with the initial m- dropped.

Also note that kutja or kokutja can be inserted before the intentional concord for additional emphasis.

Examples

Eta onyama mbi zike. Give me the meat so that I can cook.

Indjo mbi ku raere. Come so that I can tell you.

Anna we ya tu ungure pamwe. Anna came so that we could work together.

Toma wa i kostora ma rande ei. Tom went to the store in order to buy an egg.

Toma wa i kostora kutja ma rande ei. Tom went to the store in order to buy an egg.

Okuwa okurikarera kutja o ha hungire puna ovandu. It is good to stay alone so that you don't speak to people.

Ami mbe mu raere omambo nga, kokutja eṋe amu ha poka kongamburiro yeṋu. I have told you these words so that you don't break your faith.

Subsequentory

When narrating a series of actions, sometimes the subsequentory mood is used instead of the standard tense. This is constructed by using the progressive concord without the m- for all verbs after the first.

Examples

Mo kanda ongombe, o twa omaihi mondjupa, o ṱuka. You milk the cow, then put the milk in the calabash, then shake.

Twa i kostora, atu i kombar. We went to the store, then we went to the bar.

Commonly Implied Nouns (through concords, adjectives, or determiners)

Often in Otjiherero a noun is omitted, implying that the noun class of the concord, adjective, or determiner is enough to make a reasonable assumption as to what the missing noun is. The following table gives the commonly implied word for come noun classes.

Commonly Implied Nouns

Constructing Nouns From Verbs

Many nouns in Otjiherero are similar to the verb they perform. An example in English would be the similarity between "jog" and "jogger". There are two main type of transitions

Verbs Brought Into the omu-, ova-, otji-, ovi-, or ou class

Typically, verbs brought into these noun classes replace the oku- of the infinitive verb with the noun-class prefix of the specified noun class. They also change their last letter from -a to -e. People go into the omu- and ova- noun classes, concrete objects tend to be placed in the otji-/ovi- classes, and more abstract nouns fall into the ou- class.

Examples

okutunga to build => omutunge builder

okuhinga to drive => ovahinge drivers

okutjanga to write => otjitjange writing utensil

okutjitwa to be done => ovitjitwa events (done things) (an example where the final -a does not become -e

okuhepa to need => ouhepe poverty

okukohoka to become clean => ouhakohoke Uncleanliness (ha is the negative particle)

Verbs Brought Into the oma- or o- class

Typically, verbs brought into these noun classes replace the oku- of the infinitive verb with the noun-class prefix of the specified noun class. They also change their last letter from -a to -ero, -iro, -eno or -ino. The suffix is determined by the same procedure as seen in "Yesterday's/Completed Past", except the last letter will be -o instead of -e. Also note that many transitions to the o- class will be effected by extra changes, as discussed in "Moving Words to the o- and ozo- Classes" below.

Examples

okuhonga to teach => omahongero education

okumwina to be quiet => omamwinino silence

okuzira to answer => omaziriro answers

okupingena to replace => ombingeneno replacement

okukambura to believe => ongamburiro trust

okupandjara to be lost => ombandjarero loss, damnation

Constructing Verbs From Adjectives

Although rare, some adjectives can become verbs by adding the oku- prefix and adding -para at the end.

Examples

-nene big => okunenepara to become big

-hona ruling => okuhonapara to rule over

Constructing Adjectives From Verbs

A common occurrence, constructed by removing the noun-class prefix and changing the final -a to an -e.

Examples

okukohoka to become clean => -kohoke clean

okuhepa to need => -hepe needed

Moving Words to the o- and ozo- Classes

When a noun stem, verb stem, or adjective stem beginning with w-, t-, z-, k-, v-, p-, t-, y-, or tj- is used in the o- or ozo- noun class, the first letters of the stem will change

Conversions for Stems in o- and ozo- Noun Classes

Also note that the reverse change can happen for words that originate from o- or ozo- noun class.

Examples

ombaze foot => okapaze little foot

onḓu sheep => okazu little sheep

Checking For Knowledge/Understanding

There exists a short way to ask if someone knows about something. The formula is

[present habitual subject concord] + [object concord] + i

Examples

Oruzo u ru i? Do you know what oruzo is?

Anna ko mu i? Do you not know Ann?

Okupunda Omuhiva u ku i? Do you know how to dance the Omuhiva?

Opencila ko i i? Do you not know what a pencil is?

Situations Where the -a of a Concord, Directive Prefix, or Noun Class Becomes an -e

Some grammatical situations cause the ending -a of a concord, directive prefix, or noun class to become -e. These situations are:

1. Reflexive particles, ri-
2. Object concords
3. The verbs okuya, okukuka, okukura, okuura, and okukuta. (Note that okukuta can mean "to satiate hunger" or "to fasten". When used as "to fasten", this discussion does not apply.)

Examples

Ozondjise zandje ze kuru tjinene. My hair grew a lot.

Zaongara me ya nambano. Zaongara is coming now.

We kuta? Are you full (hunger)?

Eṱe twe rihonogo. We learned.

Omerihongero. Learning (noun). (Nouns constructed from verbs like this would otherwise start with oma-. Note that the noun still behaves as a noun in the oma- noun class.)

Eṱe twe ku raere. We told you.

Me kerikoha. I will go bathe.

Me kemuraere. I will go tell him/her.