Before Roman units were reintroduced in 1066 by Norman William the Conqueror, there was an Anglo-Saxon (Germanic) system of measure based on the units of the barleycorn and the gyrd (rod). The systems partly merged.
Later development of the English system continued by defining the units by law in the Magna Carta of 1215, and issuing measurement standards from the then capital Winchester. Standards were renewed in 1496, 1588 and 1758.
The last Imperial Standard Yard in bronze was made in 1845; it served as the standard in the United Kingdom until the yard was internationally redefined as 0.9144 metre in 1959 (statutory implementation: Weights and Measures Act of 1963).
Much of the units would go on to be used in later Imperial units and in the US system, which are based on the English system from the 1700s.
From May 1, 1683, King Christian V of Denmark introduced an office to oversee weights and measures, a justervæsen, to be led by Ole Rømer. The definition of the alen was set to 2 Rhine feet. Rømer later discovered that differing standards for the Rhine foot existed, and in 1698 an iron Copenhagen standard was made. A pendulum definition for the foot was first suggested by Rømer, introduced in 1820, and changed in 1835. The metric system was introduced in 1907.
mil – Danish mile. Towards the end of the 17th century, Ole Rømer connected the mile to the circumference of the earth, and defined it as 12000 alen. This definition was adopted in 1816 as the Prussian Meile. The coordinated definition from 1835 was 7.532 km. Earlier, there were many variants, the most commonplace the Sjællandsk miil of 17600 fod or 11.130 km.
palme – Palm, for circumference, 8.86 cm
alen – Forearm, 2 fod
fod – Defined as a Rheinfuss 31.407 cm from 1683, before that 31.41 cm with variations.
kvarter – Quarter, 1 / 4 alen
tomme – Inch, 1 / 12 fod
linie – Line, 1 / 12 tomme
skrupel – Scruple, 1 / 12 linie
potte – Pot, from 1683 1 / 32 fot³
smørtønde – Barrel of butter, from 1683 136 potter
korntønde – Barrel of corn, from 1683 144 potter
pund – Pound, from 1683 the weight of 1 / 62 fot³ of water, 499.75 g
dusin – 12
snes – 20
gross – 144
The Dutch system was not standardised until Napoleon introduced the metric system. Different towns used measures with the same names but differing sizes.
Some common measures:
Ons, Once – 1/16 pond = 30.881 g
Pond (Amsterdam) – 494.09 grammes (other ponds were also in use)
Scheepslast – 4000 Amsterdam pond = 1976.4 kg = 2.1786 short tons
duim –2.54 cm
kleine palm –3 cm
grote palm –9.6 cm, after 1820, 10 cm
voet –12 duim = abt. 29.54 cm, many local variations
el – about 70 cm
Pint – 0.6 l
In Finland, approximate measures derived from body parts and were used for a long time, some being later standardised for the purpose of commerce. Some Swedish, and later some Russian units have also been used.
vaaksa — The distance between the tips of little finger and thumb, when the fingers are fully extended.
kyynärä — c. 60 cm — The distance from the elbow to the fingertips.
syli — fathom, c. 180 cm — The distance between the fingertips of both hands when the arms are raised horizontally on the sides.
virsta — 2672 m (Swedish), 1068.84 m (Russian)
peninkulma — 10.67 km — The distance a barking dog can be heard in still air.
poronkusema — c. 7.5 km — The distance a reindeer walks between two spots it urinates on. This unit originates from Lapland (i.e. Sápmi).
leiviskä — 8.5004 kg
kappa — 5.4961 l
tynnyrinala — 4936.5 m2 — The area (of field) that could be sown with one barrel of grain.
kannu — 2.6172 l
kortteli — 148 mm (length) or 0.327 l (volume)
In France, again, there were many local variants. For instance, the lieue could vary from 3.268 km in Beauce to 5.849 km in Provence. Between 1812 and 1839, many of the traditional units continued in metrified adaptations as the mesures usuelles.
In Paris, the redefinition in terms of metric units made 1 m = 443.296 ligne = 3 pied 11.296 ligne.
In Quebec, the surveys in French units were converted using the relationship 1 pied (of the French variety; the same word is used for English feet as well) = 12.789 inches (of English origin). Thus a square arpent was 5299296.0804 in² or about 36,801 ft² or 0.8448 acre.
There were many local variations; the metric conversions below apply to the Quebec and Paris definitions.
lieue commune – French land league, 4.452 km, 1/25 Equatorial degree
1 Roman cubit = 444 mm so 1000 Roman cubits = 4.44 km, a closer approximation to 1/25 degree
lieue marine – French (late) sea league, 5.556 km, 3 nautical miles.
lieue de poste – Legal league, 2000 toises, 3.898 km
lieue metrique – Metric system adaptation, 4.000 km
arpent – 30 toises or 180 pieds, 58.471 m
toise – Fathom, 6 pieds. Originally introduced by Charlemagne in 790, it is now considered to be 1.949 m.
pied – Foot, varied through times, the Paris pied de roi is 324.84 mm. Used by Coulomb in manuscripts relating to the inverse square law of electrostatic repulsion. Isaac Newton used the "Paris foot" in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
pouce – Inch, 1/12 pied 27.070 mm
ligne – 1/12 pouce 2.2558 mm
arpent – square arpent, 900 square toises, 3419 m²
litron – 0.831018 liters
quintal – 100 livres, 48.95 kg
livre – 0.4895 kg
Up to the introduction of the metric system, almost every town in Germany had their own definitions. It is said that by 1810, in Baden alone, there were 112 different Ellen.
Meile – A German geographische Meile or Gemeine deutsche Meile was defined as 7.420 km, but there were a wealth of variants:
Anhalt – 7532 m
Baden – 8889 m before 1810, 8944 m before 1871, 8000 m thereafter
Böhmen – 7498 m
Brabant – 5000 m
Bayern – 7415 m, connected to a 1/15 Equatorial degree as 25406 Bavarian feet.
Hamburg (Prussia) – In 1816, king Frederick William III of Prussia adopted the Danish mile at 7532 m, or 24000 Prussian feet. Also known as Landmeile
Hessen-Kassel – 9206 m
Lippe-Detmold – 9264 m
Oldenburg – 9894 m
Osnabrück – 5160 m
Pfalz – 4630 m
Rheinland – 4119 m
Sachsen – Postmeile, 7500 m. Also 9062 m or 32000 feet in Dresden
Schleswig-Holstein – 8803 m
Westfalen – 11100 m, but also 9250 m
Vienna – 7586 m
Wiesbaden – 1000 m
Württemberg – 7449 m
Reichsmeile – New mile when the metric system was introduced, 7.5 km. Prohibited by law in 1908.
Schainos – Uncertain use, between 10 and 12 km,
Wegstunde – One hours travel, used up to the 18th century. In Germany 1 / 2 Meile or 3.71 km, in Switzerland 16000 feet or 4,8 km
Stadion – Uncertain use
Rute – Roman origin, use as land measure. Very differing definitions, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18 or 20 feet, varied between approx. 3 and 5 m.
Klafter – Fathom, usually 6 feet. Regional changes from 1.75 m in Baden to 3 m in Switzerland.
Elle – Distance between elbow and finger tip. In the North, often 2 feet, In Prussia 17 / 8 feet, in the South variable, often 2 1/2 feet. The smallest known German elle is 402.8 mm, the longest 811 mm.
Fuss – The foot varied between 23.51 cm in Wesel and 40.83 cm in Trier.
Rheinfuss – Rhine foot, used in the North, 31.387 cm
Zoll – Inch. Usually 1 / 12 foot, but also 1 / 10.
Linie – Usually 1 / 12 inch, but also 1 / 10.
Before 1541, there were no common definition for length measures in Norway, and local variants flourished. In 1541, an alen in Denmark and Norway was defined by law to be the Sjælland alen. Subsequently, the alen was defined by law as 2 Rhine feet from 1683. From 1824, the basic unit was defined as a fot being derived from astronomy as the length of a one-second pendulum times 12/38 at a latitude of 45°. The metric system was introduced in 1887.
alen – Forearm, 62.748 cm from 1824, 62.75 cm from 1683, 63.26 cm from 1541. Before that, local variants.
favn – Fathom (pl. favner), 1.882 m.
fjerdingsvei – Quarter mile, alt. fjerding, 1/4 mil, i.e. 2.82375 km.
fot – Foot, 1/2 alen. From 1824, 31.374 cm.
kvarter – Quarter, 1/4 alen.
linje – Line, 1/12 tomme or approx. 2.18 mm
lås – 28.2 m
landmil – Old land-mile, 11.824 km.
mil – Norwegian mile, spelled miil prior to 1862, 18000 alen or 11.295 km. Before 1683, a mil was defined as 17600 alen or 11.13 km. The unit survives to this day, but in a metric 10 km adaptation
rast –Lit. "rest", the old name of the mil. A suitable distance between rests when walking. Believed to be approx. 9 km before 1541.
steinkast – Stones throw, perhaps 25 favner, used to this day as a very approximate measure.
stang – Rod, 5 alen or 3.1375 m
tomme – Thumb (inch), 1/12 fot, approx. 2.61 cm. This unit was commonly used for measuring timber until the 1970s. Nowadays, the word refers invariably to the Imperial inch, 2.54 cm.
skrupel – Scruple, 1/12 linje or approx. 0.18 mm.
mål – 100 kvadrat rode, 984 m². The unit survives to this day, but in a metric 1000 m² adaptation.
kvadrat rode – Square stang, 9.84 m²
tønneland – "Barrel of land", 4 mål
favn – 1 alen by 1 favn by 1 favn, 2.232 m³, used for measuring firewood to this day.
skjeppe – 1/8 tønne, i.e. 17.4 l.
tønne – Barrel, 139.2 l.
bismerpund – 12 pund, 5.9808 kg
laup – Used for butter, 17.93 kg (approx. 16.2 l). 1 laup is 3 pund or 4 spann or 72 merker.
merke – From Roman pound, (pl. merker), 249.4 g, 218.7 g before 1683.
ort – 0.9735 g
pund – Pound, alt. skålpund, 2 merker 0.4984 kg, was 0.46665 kg before 1683
skippund – Ships pound, 159.488 kg. Was defined as 151.16 kg in 1270.
spann – Same as laup
vette – 28.8 mark or 6.2985 kg.
våg – 1/8 skippund, 17.9424 kg.
favn – Fathom (pl. favner), 3 alen, 1.88 m
kabellengde – Cable length, 100 favner, 185.2 m
kvartmil – Quarter mile, 10 kabellengder, 1852 m
sjømil – Sea mile, 4 kvartmil, 7408 m, defined as 1/15 Equatorial degree.
ort – See riksdaler and speciedaler.
riksdaler - Until 1813, Norwegian thaler. 1 riksdaler is 4 ort or 6 mark or 96 skilling.
skilling – Shilling, see riksdaler and speciedaler.
speciedaler – Since 1816. 1 speciedaler is 5 ort or 120 skilling. From 1876, 1 speciedaler is 4 kroner (Norwegian crown, NOK).
tylft – 12, also dusin
snes – 20
stort hundre – Large hundred, 120
gross – 144
The measures of the old Romanian system varied greatly not only between the three Romanian states (Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania), but sometimes also inside the same country. The origin of some of the measures are the Latin (such as iugăr unit), Slavic (such as vadră unit) and Greek (such as dram unit) and Turkish (such as palmac unit) systems.
This system is no longer in use since the adoption of the metric system in 1864.
Oca - 1,5 litres (Moldavia); 1,25 litres (Wallachia)
Litră - 1/4 oca
Baniţă - 21,5 litres (Moldavia); 33,96 litres (Wallachia)
Chiup - 30 - 40 litres (a chiup was a large clay pot for liquids)
Câblă - A bucket of wheat
Merţă - 110 - 120 ocale (Moldavia); 22,5 litres (Transylvania)
Feredelă - 1/4 bucket (Transylvania)
Obroc mare - 44 ocale
Obroc mic - 22 ocale
Giumătate - 80 - 100 vedre (poloboc)
Vadră - 10 ocale; 12,88 litres (Wallachia); 15 litres (Moldavia)
Pintă - 3,394 litres (Transylvania)
Tină - Vadră (Transylvania)
Dram - 3,18 - 3,25 g sau 3,22 - 3,80 cm3
Font - 0,5 kg (Transylvania)
Falce - 1,43 ha
Pogon - 0,5 ha
Prăjină - 180 – 210 m2
Feredelă - 1/4 pogon
Iugăr - the area ploughed in one day by two oxen - 7166 m2 (Transylvania in 1517); 0,57 ha or 1600 square stânjeni (later)
Palmă (palm) - 1/8 of a stânjen
Stânjen - 2 m (approximately)
Palmac - 3,48 cm (Moldavia)
Poştă - 8 – 20 km (depending on the country)
Pas mic (small step) - 4 palme (Wallachia)
Pas mare (large step) - 6 palme (Wallachia; Moldavia)
Lat de palmă (palm width) - 1/2 palmă
Cot (cubit) - 0,664 cm (Moldavia); 0,637 cm (Wallachia)
Funie (rope) - 20 – 120 m (depending on the place)
Leghe (league) - 4,444 km;
Deget (finger) - the width of a finger
Prăjină - 3 stânjeni
Verstă - 1067 m
Picior (foot) - 1/6 of a stânjen
Russian and Tatar systems
See:
Obsolete Russian weights and measures
Obsolete Tatar weights and measures
inch – 2.554 cm
foot – 12 inches, 30.645 cm
ell – Elbow, 37 Scots inches. 94.5 cm
fall – 18 Scots feet
mile – 320 falls, 1814.2 m
There were several variants. The Castilian is shown.
punto – Point, 1 / 12 línea
línea – Line, 1 / 12 pulgada
pulgada – Inch, 1 / 36 vara, 0.02322 m
pie – Foot, 12 pulgadas, 0.2786 m
vara – Yard, 0.8359 m
paso – Pace, 60 pulgadas
legua – League, 5000 varas, approx 4.2 km
In Sweden, a common system for weights and measures was introduced by law in 1665. Before that, there were a number of local variants. The system was slightly revised in 1735. In 1855, a decimal reform was instituted that defined a new Swedish inch as 1/10 foot. It did not last long, because the metric system was subsequently introduced in 1889. Up to the middle of the 19th century there was a death penalty for falsifying weights or measures.
aln – Forearm (pl. alnar). After 1863, 59.37 cm. Before that, from 1605, 59.38 cm as defined by king Carl IX of Sweden in Norrköping 1604 based on the Rydaholmsalnen.
famn – Fathom, 3 alnar.
kvarter – Quarter, 1 / 4 aln
fot – Foot, 1/2 aln. Before 1863, the Stockholm fot was the commonly accepted unit, at 29.69 cm.
linje – Line, after 1863 1/10 tum, 2.96 mm. Before that, 1/12 tum or 2.06 cm.
mil – Mile, also lantmil. From 1699, defined as a unity mile of 18000 aln or 10.69 km. The unified mile was meant to define the suitable distance between inns.
nymil – New mile from 1889, 10 km exactly. Commonly used to this day, normally referred to as mil.
kyndemil – The distance a torch will last, approx 16 km
skogsmil – Also rast, distance between rests in the woods, approx 5 km.
fjärdingsväg – 1 / 4 mil
stenkast – Stone's throw, approx 50 m, used to this day as an approximate measure.
ref – 160 fot, for land measurement, was 100 fot after 1855.
stång – 16 fot, for land measurement
tum – Thumb (inch), after 1863 1/10 fot, 2.96 cm. Before that, 1/12 fot or 2.474 cm.
tvärhand – Hand, 4 inches.
kannaland – 1000 fot², or 88.15 m²
kappland – 154.3 m².
spannland – 16 kappland
tunneland – 2 spannland
kvadratmil – Square mil, 36 million square favnar, from 1739.
pot – Pot (pl pottor), 0.966 l
tunna – 2 spann
ankare – Liquid measure, 39.26 l
ohm – Also åm, 155 pottor
storfavn – 3.77 m³
kubikkfavn – 5.85 m³
skeppspund – Ships pound, 20 lispund or 170.03 kg.
bismerpund – 12 skålpund, 5.101 kg.
lispund – 20 skålpund
skålpund – Pound, 0.42507 kg
mark – 1 / 2 skålpund or 212.5 g. Used from the Viking era, when it was approx 203 g.
ort – 4.2508 g
kabellängd – Initially 100 famnar or 178 m, Later, a distansminut or 1 / 10 nautical mile.
kvartmil – Quarter mile, 1852 m, identical to nautical mile.
sjömil – Sea mile, 4 kvartmil, 7408 m
daler – From 1534, Swedish thaler. From 1873, replaced by the krona (Swedish crown, SEK).
riksdaler – From 1624, 1 1/2 daler, from 1681 2 daler, from 1715 3 daler, from 1776 6 daler
skilling – From 1776, 1 / 48 riksdaler
mark – From 1534, 1 / 3 daler.From 1604, 1 / 4 daler.
õre – From 1534, 1 / 8 mark. Subsequently replaced by the skilling, but from 1855 reintroduced as 1 / 100 riksdaler.
