Longgu language

Pronouns and Person Markers

There are four pronominal forms in Longgu:

Independent pronouns and subject pronouns in Longgu are closed word classes. Possessive suffixes are attached to nouns to form inalienable possessive constructions, and object suffixes are attached to transitive verbs. Four numbers are distinguished in pronominal forms: singular, dual, paucal, and plural, and non-singular first person pronouns are either inclusive (INCL) or exclusive (EXCL).

Independent pronouns

Independent pronouns can act as subject pronouns for 1st and 2nd person non-singular. They also mark agreement between the verbs and its object for 2nd and 3rd person non-singular object suffixes. When an independent pronoun functions as the head of a noun phrase, the noun phrase may consist of the head alone (example 1), may include the pronominal article (example 2), the cardinal or ordinal numeral expressing "one", a post head modifier, or a noun phrase clitic. All third person pronouns can function as determiners, but the 3rd person plural pronoun gira and 3rd person singular pronoun ngaia are the ones that are most commonly used to fulfill this function.

"They both just caught her and they both took this girl to the sea."

"But she was still there."

Independent pronouns are shown in Table 1.

The first person dual inclusive pronoun gaoa has the reduced form ga. The first person singular pronoun na is used instead of nau when placed before the irrealis particle ho.

Independent pronouns have three functions:

"They stayed home"

"Our houses"

"Those bush (people) call it "line of the pig""

Subject pronouns

The subject pronoun is also the first constituent of a verb phrase, and is used to cross-reference the number and person of the subject noun phrase. Lonngu does not have any 1st and 2nd person non-singular subject pronouns, as can be seen in Table 2. Third person non singular subject noun phrases are either fully cross-referenced for person and number by the subject pronoun (example 6), or by the 3rd person plural subject pronoun (example 7).

Using the 3rd person plural subject pronoun to cross-reference dual and paucal subject noun phrases is thought to be a simplifying device, and used when the number of the subject has already been established either by a subject noun phrase, an independent pronoun (example 7), or a subject pronoun in a previous clause (example 8). The third person plural subject pronoun can be used to cross reference both inanimate and animate subjects.

"A mother and her child walked on the reef"

"Only they will come (not you)"

"and they both built a fence, they built a fence like a pig fence and they both put it there"

The use of 3rd person plural subject pronoun as a cross-referencing device is often associated with the repetition of an event as seen in example 8.

Subject pronouns are given in Table 2, with independent pronouns functioning as subject pronouns placed in brackets.

Possessive suffixes

Possessive suffixes are bound morphemes that are either attached to nouns or to the nominal preposition ta-, and a list of possessive suffixes are given in Table 3.

Possessive suffixes have five functions:

"mouth/ eye of the river"

"The river is located/ runs next to the village"

"Ulumatena's child"

"Tolo wants to work on a ship"

"watch the turtle"

Object suffixes

Object suffixes are attached to transitive verbs to cross-reference person and number of the object pronoun phrase argument in transitive clauses. The person and number of object noun phrases with animate references are fully marked by the object suffix on the verbs (example 14). Object suffixes in Longgu make distinctions between inanimate and animate objects, as well as distinguishing between objects which are highly individuated, and those that have no special importance.

"The shark kept circling them both"

A list of object suffixes are shown in Table 3, and independent pronouns functioning as object suffixes are placed in brackets.

For third person plural object suffixes, inanimate objects can be referred to using both -ra and -i, but animate objects are referred to using only the object suffix -ra.

Singular objects are marked by 3rd person singular suffix -a.

"They built a fence"

Non-singular objects can be marked by the 3rd person singular suffix -a, as well as the 3rd person plural suffix -ra and the 3rd person plural inanimate suffix -i. However, the 3rd person singular suffix can only be used when the object is not highly individuated (example 16). The taro tops in example 16 refers to taro tops in general, not a specific group that the speaker had in mind.

"Only I should go with his grandparents, hoeing our taro tops"

The 3rd person plural inanimate suffix -i cross references dual, paucal, or plural inanimate objects which are highly individuated. In example 17, the head noun is quantified, and food objects are also cross-referenced by the 3rd person plural inanimate suffix.

"(it was) two sticks of pudding, two betel nut fruits, two leaves of betel nut leaf, they gave (them)"