Jingnan Campaign

Background

After establishing the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang began to consolidate the authority of the royal court. He assigned territories to the members of the royal family and stationed them across the empire. These members of the royal family did not have the administrative power over their territory, but they were entitled to a personal army that ranges from 3,000 to 19,000 men. Royal members that were stationed in the northern frontier were entitled to even larger forces. For instance, the Prince of Ning was said to have an army of over 80,000 men.

The original crown prince Zhu Biao died young, and his son Zhu Yunwen was made the crown prince. Zhu Yunwen was the nephew of the territorial princes, and he felt threatened by their military power. In May 1398, Zhu Yunwen ascended the throne to become the Jianwen Emperor after the death of Zhu Yuanzhang. The princes were ordered to stay in their respective territories as the new emperor began to plan for the reduction of their military power with his close associates Qi Tai and Huang Zicheng.

Prelude

Immediately after his ascension to the throne, Zhu Yunwen, now the Jianwen Emperor, began the plan to reduce the power of each territorial prince. It was proposed that the power of Prince of Yan Zhu Di should be reduced first since he had the largest territory, but the proposal was declined.

In July 1398, Prince of Zhou was arrested in Kaifeng on treason charges. He was stripped of royal status and exiled to Yunnan. In April 1399, the princes of Qi, Xiang and Dai were stripped of their royal status. The princes of Qi and Dai were placed under house arrest in Nanjing and Datong respectively while the Xiang prince committed suicide. Two months later, the Prince of Min also lost his royal status and was exiled to Fujian. As the rift between regional princes and the imperial court grew, the Prince of Yan, who commanded the most powerful military, effectively assumed the leadership role.

Attack on Beiping

In December 1398, to prevent the potential attack from Prince of Yan, Jianwen Emperor appointed several imperial staff to Beiping (present day Beijing) where Zhu Di was stationed in. In response, Zhu Di pretended to be ill while preparing for the anticipated war. However, the conspiracy was reported to the imperial staff in Beiping by one of the staff in Yan court. As a result, the arrest for Prince of Yan was ordered by the imperial court. Zhang Xin, one of the imperial staff, decided to leak the imperial order to Prince of Yan. To prepare for the imminent arrest, Zhu Di ordered his general Zhang Yu to gather 800 men to patrol the Yan residence in Beiping.

In July, the imperial staff surrounded the Yan residence, and Zhu Di responded by executing the imperial staff and stormed the gates of Beiping. By nightfall, Zhu Di was in control of the city and officially rebelled against the imperial court. For the next several days, the Yan forces captured Tongzhou, Jizhou, Dunhua and Miyun. By the end of July, Juyong Pass, Huailai and Yongping all fell to the Yan forces and the entire Beiping area was effectively under control Yan control.

As the Yan forces captured Huailai, Prince of Gu fled to Nanjing from his territory in Xuanfu, which was situated near the Yan forces. In August, the imperial order demanded the Prince of Liao and Ning to return to Nanjing. The Prince of Liao accepted the order while the Prince of Ning rejected. Prince of Dai intended to support the Yan forces, but was forced to remain under house arrest in Datong.

First offensive

In July 1399, the news of the rebellion had arrived in Nanjing. Jianwen Emperor ordered the removal of royal status from Prince of Yan and began to assemble an attack on Yan forces. A headquarters for the expedition was set up in Zhending, Hebei province.

Since many of the generals in the Ming court have either died or been purged by Zhu Yuanzhang, the lack of experienced military commanders was a major concern. With no other options, the 65-year-old Geng Bingwen was appointed as the commander and led 130,000 government forces north on an expedition against the Yan forces. On 13 August, the government forces arrived in Zhending. To prepare for the offensive, the forces were divided and stationed in Hejian, Zhengzhou and Xiongxian separately. On 15 August, the Yan forces assaulted Xiongxian and Zhengzhou by surprise and captured both of the cities while annexing its forces.

One of the generals in Geng Bingwen’s camp surrendered to Zhu Di and informed him the positions of Geng Bingwen forces. Zhu Di instructed the general to return the message that the Yan forces are approaching soon to convince Geng Bingwen to gather his forces together to prepare for the general attack.

On 24 August, the Yan forces arrived in Wujixian. Based on the information gathered from the locals and the surrendered troops, they began to prepare to raid the government forces.

The Yan forces launched a surprise raid on Geng Bingwen the next day, and a full-scale battle ensued. Zhu Di personally led a strike force against the flank of government forces, and Geng Bingwen suffered a crushing defeat as a result. Over 3000 men surrendered to the Yan forces, and the remainder of the government forces fled back to Zhending. General Gu Cheng surrendered to Zhu Di. For the next several days, the Yan forces attempted to capture Zhending but were unable to succeed. On 29 August, the Yan forces withdrew back to Beiping. Gu Cheng were sent back to Beiping to assist Zhu Gaochi with the defense of the city.

Second offensive

As the news of Geng Bingwen's defeat reached back to Nanjing, Jianwen Emperor were starting to be concerned about the war. Li Jinglong was proposed by Huang Zicheng as the new commander, and the proposal was accepted despite of opposition from Qi Tai. On 30 August, Li Jinglong led a total of 500,000 men and advanced to Hejian. As the news reached the Yan camp, Zhu Di was certain of a Yan victory by outlining the weakness of Li Jinglong.

Defense of Beiping

On 1 September, government forces from Liaodong began to lay siege to the city of Yongping. Zhu Di led the Yan forces to reinforce the city on 19 September and defeated the Liaodong forces by 25 September. Following the victory, Zhu Di decided to raid the city of Daning controlled by Prince of Ning in order to annex his army. The Yan forces reached Daning on 6 October, and Zhu Di went inside the city. He was able to coerce the Prince of Ning and the troops in Daning to submit to him, and the strength of the Yan forces increased significantly.

Upon learning that Zhu Di is away in Daning, the government forces led by Li Jinglong crossed Lugou Bridge and began to attack Beiping. However, Zhu Gaochi was able to hold off the attacks. On one occasion, the government forces almost broke into the city, but the attack was held back by a suspicious Li Jinglong. The temperature in Beiping is subzero during the month of October, and the Yan defenders poured water on the city walls at nightfall. As the walls were covered in ice the next day, the government forces were prevented from scaling the walls. The government forces were composed of soldiers from the south, and they were unable to sustain their attack in the cold weather.

Battle of Zhengcunba

On 19 October, the Yan forces gathered in Huizhou and began its march back to Beiping. By 5 November, the Yan forces were in the outskirts of Beiping and defeated the scout forces of Li Jinglong. The main army of each side engaged in Zhengcunba for a major battle in the same day, and forces of Li Jinglong suffered a crushing defeat. At nightfall, Li Jinglong retreated from Zhengcunba hastily, and the remaining attack force in Beiping were subsequently surrounded and defeated by the Yan forces.

The Battle of Zhengcunba was concluded by the retreat of Li Jinglong back to Dezhou. The government forces lost more than 100,000 men in this battle. On 9 November, Zhu Di returned to Beiping and wrote to the imperial court about his intention to remove Qi Tai and Huang Zicheng from their post. Jianwen Emperor declined to respond. In December, Wu Gao was dismissed from his post in Liaodong by the imperial court, and Zhu Di decided to attack Datong. The Yan forces reached Guangchang on 24 December, and the garrison surrendered. On 1 January 1400, the Yan forces reached Weizhou and was met with no resistance yet again. On 2 February, the Yan forces reached Datong and began its siege on the city. The strategic importance of Datong was significant to the imperial court, and Li Jinglong was forced to reinforce the city in a hurried manner. However, Zhu Di returned to Beiping before the government forces could arrive, and the government forces suffered considerable amount of non combat casualties. With his troops exhausted, Jinglong wrote to Zhu Di and requested for armistice. During the attack in Datong, several forces from Mongolia surrendered to the Yan forces. In February, the garrison at Baoding also surrendered.

Battle of Baigou River

In April 1400, Li Jinglong mobilised 600,000 men and began advancing northwards toward the Baigou River. On 24 April, the Yan forces engaged with the government forces in a decisive battle. The government forces ambushed Zhu Di, and the Yan forces suffered a series of defeat initially. Landmines were placed in the retreat path of the Yan forces by the government forces, which inflicted heavy losses for the Yan Army on their way back to the camp. A new battle ensued the following day, and the government forces were successful in attacking the rear of the Yan forces. Zhu Di led a personal charge against the main force of Li Jinglong, and the battle turned into a stalemate as Zhu Gaochi arrived with reinforcements. At this point, the wind started to blow and snapped the flag of Li Jinglong in half, which led to chaos in the government camp. Zhu Di seized the opportunity and launched a general assault and defeated the government forces. More than 100,000 government troops surrendered to the Yan forces, and Li Jinglong retreated back to Dezhou once again.

On 27 April, the Yan forces began marching toward Dezhou to siege the city. The Yan forces captured Dezhou on 9 May, and Li Jinglong was forced to flee to Jinan. The Yan forces followed up immediately and encircled the city of Jinan on 15 May, and Li Jinglong fled back to Nanjing. Despite of losing the entire army and being condemned by the imperial court, Li Jinglong was spared of execution.

Battle of Jinan

As the city of Jinan was under siege by the Yan forces, the defenders led by Tie Xuan and Sheng Yong refused to surrender. On 17 May, the Yan forces diverted the river to flood the ciy. Tie Xuan pretended to surrender and lured Zhu Di to the city gate. As Zhu Di approached the city gate, he was ambushed by the government forces and fled back to the camp. The siege continued for the next three months. The strategic important of Jinan was crucial, and Zhu Di was determined to capture the city. After suffering several setbacks during the siege, Zhu Di turned to the use of cannons. In response, the defenders resorted to placing several plaques written with the name of Zhu Yuanzhang, father of Zhu Di, on top of the city walls. Zhu Di was forced to stop the bombardment.

In June, Jianwen Emperor dispatched an envoy to negotiate for peace, but it was rejected by Zhu Di. The government reinforcements arrived in Hejian around July, and disrupted the supply line of the Yan forces. With the supply line threatened, Zhu Di was forced to withdraw back to Beiping on 16 August. The garrison in Jinan followed up and recaptured the city of Dezhou. Both Tie Xuan and Sheng Yong were promoted to replace the commanding post previously led by Li Jinglong. The government forces advanced back north and settled in Dingzhou and Cangzhou.

Battle of Dongchang

In October 1400, Zhu Di was informed that the government forces were marching northwards, and decided to launch a preemptive strike on Cangzhou. Departing from Tongzhou on 25 October, the Yan forces reached Cangzhou by 27 October and captured the city in two days. The Yan forces crossed the river and arrived in Dezhou on 4 November. Zhu Di attempted to summon Sheng Yong to surrender, but was refused. Sheng Yong was defeated while leading an attack on the rear of the Yan Army. In November, the Yan forces have arrived in Linqing, and Zhu Di decided to disrupt the government supply line to force Sheng Yong to abandon Jinan. To counter the decision, Sheng Yong planned for a decisive battle in Dongchang, and armed his troops with gunpowder weapons and poisonous crossbows.

On 25 December, the Yan forces arrived in Dongchang. Sheng Yong successfully lured Zhu Di into his encirclement, in which the Yan general Zhang Yu was killed in action while trying to break Zhu Di out. While Zhu Di was able to flee from the battlefield, the Yan forces suffered another defeat the next day and were forced to withdraw. On 16 January 1401, the Yan forces returned to Beiping. The Battle of Dongchang was the largest defeat suffered by Zhu Di since the onset of the campaign, and he was particularly saddened by the death of Zhang Yu. During the battle, Zhu Di was almost killed on numerous occasions. However, the government forces were instructed by Jianwen Emperor to refrain from killing Zhu Di, in which the Prince of Yan took advantage of.

The news of victory following the Battle of Dongchang was well received by Jianwen Emperor. In January 1401, Qi Tai and Huang Zicheng were restored of their posts, and the emperor went on to worship the imperial ancestral temple in Nanjing. The military morale of Sheng Yong forces received a significant boost, and the Yan forces stayed clear of Shandong in subsequent attacks.

Battle of Jia River-Gaocheng

The defeat at Dongchang was a humiliating loss for Zhu Di, but his close advisor Yao Guangxiao supported to continue military operations. The Yan forces mobilised again on 16 February 1401 and marched southwards.

In anticipation of a Yan strike, Sheng Yong stationed himself in Dezhou with 200,000 troops, while placing the remainder of the forces in Zhending. Zhu Di decided to strike Sheng Yong first. On 20 March, the Yan forces encountered the forces of Sheng Yong in Jia River near Wuyi. On 22 March, the Yan forces crossed the Jia River. Seeing that the camp of Sheng Yong was heavily guarded, Zhu Di decided to personally scout the opponent to search for weak spots. Since Jianwen Emperor forbade the killing of Zhu Di, the government forces refrained from shooting at Zhu Di as he scouted around with minimal harassment.

After the scouting operation, Zhu Di led the Yan forces and attacked the left wing of Sheng Yong. The ensuing battle lasted until the nightfall, in which both sides suffered equal amount of casualties. Both sides engaged again the next day. After several hours of intense fighting, the wind suddenly started to blow from the northeast to southwest toward the government positions. The government forces were unable to battle against the wind as the Yan forces ran over their positions. Sheng Yong was forced to retreat to Dezhou. Government reinforcements from Zhending also retreated after hearing the news of Sheng Yong's defeat.

The Battle of Jia River re-established the military edge for Prince of Yan. On 4 March, Qi Tai and Huang Zicheng were held accountable for the loss and were dismissed from their post. The emperor instructed them to recruit troops from other areas.

After the defeat of Sheng Yong in Jia River, the Yan forces advanced to Zhending. Zhu Di managed to lure the government forces out of the city and engaged them in Gaocheng on 9 March. Facing the gunpowder weapons and crossbows utilised by the government forces, the Yan Army suffered heavy losses. The battle ensued the next day, and a severe wind started to blow. The government forces were unable to hold on to its position and were crushed by the Yan forces.

From Baigou River to Jia River and Gaocheng, the Yan forces were aided by the wind in all of these occasions. Zhu Di was convinced that the Yan forces were destined for victory.

Ensuing battles

In the immediate aftermath of Battle of Jia River-Gaocheng, the Yan forces took the advantage and marched southwards with no resistance. Zhu Di demanded for peace talks, and Jianwen Emperor consulted with advisor Fang Xiaonu for opinions. Fang Xiaonu suggested to pretend to negotiate while ordering the forces in Liaodong to strike Beiping. The strategy did not work as planned, and in May Sheng Yong sent out an army to attack the supply line of the Yan Army. Zhu Di claimed that Sheng Yong refused to stop military actions with ill intentions, and managed to convince Jianwen Emperor to imprison Sheng Yong.

As both sides ceased to negotiate, Zhu Di decided to raid the supply line of the government forces to starve the defenders in Dezhou. On 15 June, the Yan forces successfully destroyed the main food storage of the government forces in Pei, and Dezhou was on the brink of collapse. In July, the Yan forces captured Pengde and Linxian. On 10 July, government forces from Zhending launched a raid on Beiping. Zhu Di divided the army to reinforce Beiping and defeated the government forces by 18 September. In hope to reverse the tides of the battle, imperial advisor Fang Xiaonu attempted to intensify the existing distrust between the first and second son of Zhu Di, Zhu Gaochi and Zhu Gaoxu, but the strategy failed once again.

On 15 July, government forces led by Fang Zhao from Datong began to approach Baoding, threatening Beiping, and Zhu Di was forced to withdraw. The Yan forces had a decisive victory in Baoding on 2 October, and Fang Zhao retreated back to Datong. On 24 October, the Yan forces returned to Beiping. The government forces from Liaodong attempted to raid the city again, but the attack was repelled.

The Jingnan Campaign has been ongoing for more than two years up until this point. Despite of numerous victories, the Yan forces were unable to hold on to territories due to lack of manpower.

Advancing south

By the winter of 1401, Zhu Di decided to alter the general offensive strategy. The Yan forces were to skip the strongholds of the government forces, and advance straight south toward the Yangtze River.

On 2 December, the Yan forces mobilised and began advancing southward. In the month of January, the Yan forces stormed across Shandong and captured Dong'e, Dongping, Wenshang and Pei. On 30 January 1402, the Yan forces reached Xuzhou, the major transportation hub.

In response to the mobilisation of the Yan forces, Jianwen Emperor ordered Mei Ying to defend Huai'an, and ordered Xu Huizu to reinforce Shandong. On 21 February, the government forces in Xuzhou refused to engage with the Yan forces to focus on defending the city after suffering a defeat.

Battle of Lingbi

Zhu Di decided to skip Xuzhou and continued to advance southward. The Yan forces went past Suzhou, defended by Pin An, and reached Bengbu by 9 March. Ping An pursued the Yan forces but was ambushed by Zhu Di at Fei River on 14 March, which forced the Pin An to retreat back to Suzhou.

On 23 March, Zhu Di dispatched an army to disrupt the supply line of Xuzhou. The Yan forces arrived at the Sui River on 14 April, and settled across the river facing the government camp. A battle broke out on 22 April in which the government forces led by Xu Yaozu were victorious. As the government forces had victories one after another, the military morale of the Yan forces started to plummet. Soldiers of the Yan forces were mostly from the north, and they were unaccustomed to the heat as summertime approaches. The generals of Zhu Di proposed a withdrawal to regroup, in which Zhu Di rejected.

During this time, the imperial court received rumours that the Yan forces have retreated back north. Jianwen Emperor recalled Xu Yaozu back to Nanjing, which reduced the government strength in north of the Yangtze River. On 25 April, the government forces moved the camp to Lingbi and began to set up fortifications. A series of battle ensued, and the government forces gradually ran out of food supply as the Yan forces successfully blocked the supply line. With the imminent shortage of food supply, the government forces planned to break out of Yan encirclement and regroup in the Huai River. The break out signal was decided as three shots of cannon fire. On the next day, the Yan forces happened to attack Lingbi fortification with the same signal. The government forces completely collapsed in a state of confusion as the Yan forces stormed to take over and ended the battle.

The main strength the government forces were crushed decisively in the Battle of Lingbi, and the Yan forces were now unmatched in the north of Yangtze River.

Fall of Nanjing

After the Battle of Lingbi, the Yan forces advanced straight toward the southeast and captured Sizhou on 7 May. Sheng Yong attempted to set up a defense line in the Huai River to prevent the Yan forces from crossing. As the attack was halted in Huai’an, Zhu Di divided the army and launched a converging attack on Sheng Yong. Sheng Yong was defeated, and the Yan forces captured Xuyi.

On 11 May, the Yan forces marched toward Yangzhou, and the city surrendered on one week later. The nearby city of Gaoyou also surrendered soon after.

The fall of Yangzhou was a devastating blow for the government forces, as the imperial capital Nanjing is now exposed to a direct attack. After discussing with Fang Xiaoru, the Jianwen Emperor decided to negotiate again with Zhu Di to delay the attack while calling for help from other provinces. The nearby provinces of Suzhou, Ningbo and Huizhou all dispatched an army to protect the imperial capital.

On 22 May, Zhu Di rejected the negotiation for armistice. On 1 June, the Yan forces were about to cross the Yangtze River, but was met with firm resistance from Sheng Yong. After suffering a few setbacks, Zhu Di was considering to accept the peace offer and withdraw back to the north. Zhu Gaoxu arrived with reinforcement in a decisive moment and crushed the forces of Sheng Yong. During the preparation for river crossing, the Yan forces obtained several warships from the government navy. The Yan forces crossed the Yangtze River from Guazhou on 3 June, and Sheng Yong was once again defeated. On 6 June, Zhenjiang fell to the Yan forces.

By 8 June, the Yan forces advanced to 30 km east of Nanjing. The imperial court was in a state of panic, and Jianwen Emperor frantically dispatched several envoys in hopes to negotiate for armistice. Zhu Di rejected the notion and the Yan forces marched toward the imperial capital.

Nanjing was effectively isolated by 12 June. All messengers dispatched to other provinces were intercepted by the Yan forces, and no reinforcement was in sight for the imperial capital. On 13 July 1402, the Yan forces arrived in Nanjing. The city defenders decided to open up the city gate and surrender without resistance. With the fall of Nanjing to the Prince of Yan Army, the Jingnan Campaign has drawn to an end.

Aftermath

As the Yan forces marched into Nanjing, Jianwen Emperor set the imperial palace on fire in despair. While the body of Empress Ma was located afterwards, the body of Jianwen Emperor had vanished and was never found. The emperor was alleged to have escaped through the tunnels and went into hiding.

Zhu Di decided to go on and hold an imperial funeral for the emperor to imply his death to the general public. On 17 June, Zhu Di was crowned at the imperial palace and became the Yongle Emperor. All of the Jianwen policies were reversed to the original policies set during the reign of Hongwu Emperor.

On 25 June, Qi Tai, Huang Zicheng and Fang Xiaoru were all executed, and their families exterminated. Various other imperial advisors to the Jianwen Emperor were either executed or committed suicide, and their families were exiled by the new government. Majority of these families were pardoned and allowed to return to their homeland during the reign of Hongxi Emperor.

Influences

During the early reign of Yongle Emperor, the territorial princes were restored of their positions. However, they were relocated away from the frontiers, and gradually stripped of their military power. With the subsequent policies enforced by the Yongle Emperor, the emperor was successful in consolidating the power of the central government. In 1426, Xuande Emperor managed to force all of the territorial princes to renounce their remaining personal army after suppressing the rebellion of Zhu Gaoxu.

The Yongle Emperor began the preparation for relocating the imperial capital to Beiping in 1403, a process that lasted throughout his entire reign. The construction of the future Forbidden City along with the restructuring of the Grand Canal were constantly ongoing. In 1420, the reconstruction of Beiping City was completed, and the Ming Dynasty officially relocated the imperial capital to Beiping and renamed the city to Beijing. With the exception of Republic of China between 1928 and 1949, Beijing remains to be the fixed capital of China ever since.