Chalcedonian Christianity is a term referring to Christian denominations adhering to the Definition of Chalcedon (AD 451), a religious doctrine concerning the divine and human natures of Jesus Christ. While most extant Christian communions and confessions are understood to be Chalcedonian, from the 5th to the 8th centuries the ascendancy of Chalcedonian Christology was not always certain.
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The dogmatical disputes raised during the Council of Chalcedon led to the Chalcedonian Schism thus to the formation of the Non-Chalcedonian body of churches known as Oriental Orthodox. The Chalcedonian churches remained united with the Holy See of Rome, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (or "New Rome") and the Eastern Orthodox patriarchates of the Middle East (namely Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem). Together, these metropolitan archbishoprics were ranked in honor as the pillars of Catholic Christendom and of a Chalcedonian confession of faith, superseding the early de facto leadership of three Petrine sees (in order of primacy: Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch). During the 6th-century reign of Emperor Justinian I, the five patriarchates were recognised as the Pentarchy, the official ecclesiastical authority of the Imperial Christian Church.
Today, the great majority of Christian denominations can be considered descended from the Pentarchy, subscribing to Chalcedonian Christianity, broadly divided into the Roman Catholic Church in the predominantly Latin-speaking West and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the predominantly Greek-speaking East (with Protestant denominations descended from late medieval Catholicism in the wake of the Protestant Reformation).
The groups that rejected Chalcedon's Christological definition were the majority of the Armenian, Coptic, and Ethiopian Christians, together with a part of the Indian and Syriac Christians (the latter of which came to be identified as Jacobites). Today, such groups are known collectively as the Non-Chalcedonian, Miaphysite, or Oriental Orthodox churches.
Some Armenian Christians, especially in the region of Cappadocia and Trebizond inside the Byzantine Empire, accepted the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon and engaged in polemics against the Armenian Apostolic Church.
Others developed into what would later be called Eastern Catholic or Uniate churches, in full communion with the Latin Church and under the ultimate authority of the Roman Pope.
Chalcedonian dogmatical dispute
The Chalcedonian understanding of how the divine and human relate in Jesus of Nazareth is that the humanity and divinity are exemplified as two natures and that the one hypostasis of the Logos perfectly subsists in these two natures. The Non-Chalcedonians hold the position of miaphysitism (sometimes called monophysitism by their opponents). Miaphysitism holds that in the one person of Jesus Christ, divinity and humanity are united in one nature, the two being united without separation, without confusion and without alteration. That led many members of the two churches to condemn each other: the Chalcedonians condemning the Non-Chalcedonians as Eutychian Monophysites, and the Non-Chalcedonians condemning the Chalcedonians as Nestorians.
Dissent from Chalcedonian doctrine
Those present at the Council of Chalcedon accepted Trinitarianism and the concept of hypostatic union, and rejected Arianism, Modalism, and Ebionism as heresies (which had also been rejected at the First Council of Nicaea in AD 325).
Those present at the council also rejected the Christological doctrines of the Nestorians, Eutychians, and monophysites (these doctrines had also been rejected at the First Council of Ephesus in 431). Later interpreters of the council held that Chalcedonian Christology also rejected monothelitism and monoenergism (rejected at the Third Council of Constantinople in 680). Those who did not accept the Chalcedonian Christology now call themselves non-Chalcedonian. Historically, they called themselves Miaphysites or Cyrillians (after St Cyril of Alexandria, whose writing On the Unity of Christ was adopted by them and taken as their standard) and were called by Orthodox Christians monophysites. Those who held to the non-Chalcedonian Christologies called the doctrine of Chalcedon dyophysitism.