Bunak people

Settlement area

Today's settlement area of the Bunak people are located in the mountains of central Timor, ranging from the East Timorese town of Maliana in the north to the Timor Sea in the south, where both the Bunak and the Tetun Dili communities often live side by side in coexistence. The Bunak people are isolated linguistically and socially, since the adjacent Kemak people are in the north, the Mambai people in the east, Tetun Dili people in the south and west and the rest of the Atoni people speak Malayo-Polynesian languages in the west. While Bunak are considered as one of the Papuan languages, even though there are strong influences of neighboring languages. Papuan languages are usually spoken only in the far east of Timor. Because of the language diversity in the region, the Bunak people are able to dominate at least one of the Malayo-Polynesian languages fluently (in East Timor, Tetum language is the lingua franca), while their surrounding neighbors rarely learn Bunak language. In the hard reach mountains, the settlements of the Bunak people are relatively isolated from their neighboring communities. In East Timor, their settlement area expands to the west of Manufahi District and in the West Timor of Indonesia towards the east of the Belu Regency and Malaka Regency.

The Bunak people of East Timor centers in places like Bobonaro and Lolotoe in the town of Bobonaro District, Tilomar Subdistrict and Zumalai in the municipality of Cova Lima District, Cassa in the municipality of Ainaro District, and Betano and Same in the municipality of Manufahi District. In the western border area of Cova Lima District, the Bunak people form a minority against the majority population of Tetun Dili people. However, the settlements are mixed. Between Fohoren and the coast south of Suai the villages of the Tetun Dili people and Bunak people are found interwoven. A total of 55,837 East Timorese consider Bunak language as their native language.

To the eastern region of the West Timor of Indonesia, the Bunak people in Belu Regency form the majority in Lamaknen and South Lamaknen districts, and as a minority in Riahat district in the southeast. Similarly, in the southeast of West Timor, the Tetun Dili people form the majority. Individual Bunak settlements can be found among Tetun Dili villages in the Rai Manuk district of Belu Regency, Kobalima, East Kobalima and East Malaka district of Malaka Regency. The westernmost of Bunak settlements are Haroeh (Sanleo Administrative village, East Malaka district) and Welaus (North Lakekun Administrative village, Kobalima district). In the northwest are the isolated Bunak villages of Faturika, Renrua (both in Rai Manuk district) and Babulu (Kobalima district). To the east the settlements of Bunak people lie along the road to the Alas and South Alas Administrative village of East Kobalima district at the border with East Timor.

Mythical origins

According to the legend, there was once a man named Mau Ipi Guloq, who first domesticated the water buffalo. Together with his brother Asan Paran, he one day caught two sows, which turned into women. His brother, however, claimed both women separately which eventually led Mau Ipi Guloq to parted from him in a battle. One day a crow disturbed his buffalo, so that Mau Ipi Guloq shot a golden arrow at the bird with a golden blowpipe that he had borrowed from his brother. The crow flew with the arrow and Mau Ipi Guloq followed her into the underworld, where he met her sick ruler. Mau Ipi Guloq offered his help and discovered that his golden arrow was stuck in the ruler. He exchanged it with a bamboo arrow, which he soaked in his betel pouch. The ruler of the underworld was restored to his health and gave Mau Ipi Guloq two oranges of a tree from the underworld that turned into princesses. Asan Paran asked his brother to exchange one of his wives for one of the princesses. But when this refused, Asan Paran overthrew Mau Ipi Guloq into a ravine and killed him. However, Mau Ipi Guloq's wives found him and brought him back to life by using an oil from the underworld. He returned home healthy and rejuvenated, where his brother also asked for a bath in the oil in order to be young again. The Mau Ipi Guloq's wives heated the oil bath so much that Asan Paran scalded and died. Mau Ipi Guloq also married his brother's wives and became one of the principle ancestors of the Bunak people.

Overview

Just as in any Timorese ethnic groups, there was originally no written tradition. Therefore, there was only historical oral traditions until the arrival of European colonization. Rich tradition does exist among the Timorese, especially the Bunak people. These narrative traditions are recited with repetitions, rhymes and alliterations. This helps the performer to remember the verses.

In general, it is assumed that the Melanesians migrated to Timor in 3000 BC and were partially displaced from the following Austro-American groups from 2500 BC. It is now assumed that the Fataluku people might reach Timor from the east only after the Austronesians and instead they were repressed or assimilated. There were speculation of such scenario even with the Makasae language. In the case of the Bunak people, however, there are only names of places that are of Papuan origin in the center country, thus the Bunak people must have settled here before the Austronesians. But since Bunak people has common parts of non-Australian vocabularies with Fataluku language, Makasae language and Makalero language, so there should have been a Proto-Timor-Papua language, from which all the Papuan languages of Timor originate.

The present settlement area of the Bunak people is the result of different hiking trail movements. Due to population growth, the Bunak people were forced to expand again and again to find new arable land. External influences led to escape movements and forced resettlement. Thus at the beginning of the Portuguese colonization, which began on Timor Island from the 16th century onward. Until the middle of the 18th century, the Dutch extended their influence into the area of the Bunak people, so that it was divided into two sections; comprising a Western, Dutch and an Eastern Portuguese sphere of interest. But it remained with a predominantly nominal rule of the Europeans exercised by the local rulers. It was only in the early 20th century that the two colonial powers succeeded in building up a real colonial administration. In the Second World War the Japanese occupied from 1942 to 1945 a complete Timor, fought by Australian guerrilla commandos. After the war, the western west became part of Indonesia, while the eastern Portuguese remained a colony until 1975. When the Portuguese began with their departure from Timor, the Indonesians first occupied the border region of East Timor. Nine days after the declaration of Independence of East Timor, it was followed by a full invasion and a 24 year long struggle for independence. The civilian population, who fled during the invasion into the wilderness, only later they had to gradually surrender to the invaders. Until finally, in 1979 the last of the Bunak people had lived in the forests for three years. It was not until 1999 that Indonesia withdrew, and after three years of the administration of the United Nations in East Timor had they finally became independent. The settlement area of the Bunak people remained divided by the new national border. Since independence, more and more people from rural areas have moved to the capital, Dili, as it is with the Bunak people. Many of the people who are drawn were organized according to their geographical origin. Bunak speakers live in the west of the city in Comoro, Fatuhada and Bairro Pite, and the center in Suco Gricenfor, Acadiru Hun, Suco Santa Cruz and Suco Lahane Oriental. In 2006 there were unrest in the county which started mainly by the East Timorians from the east (Firaku) and from the west (Kaladi). Bunak people belonging to the Kaladi were also involved in the collisions. In Dili, for example, there was a conflict between the Bunak people from Bobonaro District and Ermera District and Makasae people from Baucau District and Viqueque District for dominance in the market.

Heartland

The core land of the Bunak is located in the middle east of the East Timorese community of Bobonaro and in the north east of the municipality of Cova Lima District. Here is the only place with names of Bunak origin are to be found, while in the rest of the settlements there are also geographic names of Austronesian origin and even Bunak settlement in bordering territories have only Austronesian names. It is concluded that the original homeland of the Bunak people lies in the center of the country from where it expanded. In the Bunak language there are influences of Kemak language and less of Mambai language. From this it is concluded that geographically the original Bunak people also had contact with the Mambai people and Kemak people, whom are also situated in the main land.

In the northeast, the Bunak people refer to themselves and their language as Gaiq or Gaeq, which is likely to derived from Mgai; the Kemak name for the Bunak people. According to the oral tradition of the Bunak people, they were formerly belonged to the kingdom of Likusa (Likosa), which once centered in the region of the Tokodede and Kemak people which explains the adoption of Austronesian name of the Bunak people. This kingdom is also said to be responsible for the strong linguistic influence of the Kemak language on the language of the Bunak people. In Marobo (Atsabe Administrative Post) and Suco Obulo, the Kemak people mingled with the Bunak people. This led to cultural differences of the Kemak people of this side compared to the neighboring Kemak people of Atsabe.

Between Maliana, Lamaknen and Maucatar

It is reported according to the Bunak narrative in the northwest that they originally migrated from the east to the region south of Maliana and the present Indonesian districts of Lamaknen and Raihat. There they mingled peacefully; depending on the source, with the local Tetun Dili or Atoin Meto people. The existing village names of Austronesian origin support the data from these legends. Legends of the Bunak people only reported in the upper Lamaknen district that their forefathers had either expelled or killed the people of the Melus when they came into the region. Research so far has not clarified whether the Melus was a Tetun Dili, Atoin Meto or another people. Investigations of the Bunak dialects suggest that Bunak people from the northeast and southwest met and settled in Lamaknen district. According to oral tradition, the region around Lamaknen district was an autonomous region of Wehali's Tetun Dili people, bordering on Likusa kingdom. This influence can still be seen today in the Lamaknen dialect uses loanwords for ritual formulations from Tetum language.

In 1860 the region around Maucatar became a Dutch enclave, while the surrounding area of Portugal was claimed. The borders of the Enclave were oriented at the borders of the local Bunak empires. The area now belongs to the Sucos of Holpilat, Taroman, Fatululic, Dato Tolu and Lactos. The territory of the then enclave of Maucatar is still inhabited by a large majority of Bunak. However, there are also names of places which have their origin in the Tetun Dili people. Therefore it is assumed that the Bunak people have immigrated to this region later and then assimilated with the Tetun Dili people for the most part; which today forms an only small minority.

In 1897 there were several battles around Lamaknen district areas between the northeastern kingdom of Lamaquitos (Lamakhitu) and the southern Lakmaras kingdom, which had its coalition partners with the Bunak people in the southwest. The end of this last traditional conflict between the indigenous empires of the region has meant that the Bunak people in Lamaknen district have since gradually left their villages fortified on highlands and built houses close to water supplies. Spread over a larger area, the clan members now only come to their clan houses to perform ceremonies. As a result of the various territorial shifts between the Bunak empires, however, the border between the two colonial powers of Portugal and the Netherlands remained a long-standing issue and was the subject of lengthy negotiations. In Lakmaras district, there were several deaths in the same year in clashes between the Dutch and Portuguese troops. The Dutch claim to Maucatar has so far been justified by Lakmaras' sovereignty, which created a link to Maucatar. Meanwhile, Lakmaras had become subject to the kingdom of Lamaquitos, and this was part of the Portuguese sphere of power with the Treaty of Lisbon in 1859. Maucatar would have failed as an Portugal enclave, according to the agreements that were already in place. On the other hand, the state of Tahakay (Tahakai, Tafakay, Takay; now in southern Lamaknen district) belonging to Portugal had subsequently become part of Lamaknen district. Tahakay, however, belonged to the Portuguese sphere of influence, while Lamaknen district belonged to the Dutch. Hence Portugal opposed to this loss in the negotiations of 1902, and therefore demanded the entire Dutch territories in the center of Timor. A compromise was reached with the The Hague Convention of October 1, 1904: Portugal was to receive Maucatar, in exchange for the Portuguese enclave Noimuti in West Timor, and the border areas of Tahakay, Tamira Ailala and Tamiru Ailala of Lamaknen District. Portugal ratified the treaty until 1909, but then there was a dispute over the border crossing on the eastern border of Oecusse District. In 1910, the Netherlands took advantage of the unfortunate situation after the overthrowing of the Portuguese monarchy in order to regain Lakmaras with the help of European and Javanese troops.

In February 1911 following the 1904 Convention, Portugal tried to occupy Maucatar. However, in June, it was faced a superior Dutch armed forces from the Ambonese infantry, supported by European soldiers. On June 11, Portuguese troops occupied the territory of Lakmaras, but on July 18, Dutch and Javanese troops invaded it back. After the victory of the Dutch, the Portuguese then sought a peaceful agreement. They soon fell into trouble by the rebellion of Manufahi District, which brought them to negotiate. On August 17, 1916, a treaty was signed in The Hague, which largely defined the borders between East and West Timor. On 21 November the areas were exchanged. Noimuti, Maubisse, Tahakay and Taffliroe fell to the Netherlands, and Maucatar to Portugal, causing panic. Before handing over to the Portuguese, 5,000 locals, mostly of Bunak people, destroyed their fields and moved to West Timor. The population in Tamira Ailala would rather have stayed with Portugal, while in Tahakay the Dutch were welcomed.

It was only a few generations ago that Bunak established villages in the lowlands around Maliana, such as Tapo-Memo. Even today these villages still have ritual relations with their native villages in the highlands.

After the Second World War, Bunak people from Lebos fled from the then Portuguese Timor to Lamaknen district. They were afraid of reprisals after collaborating with the Japanese during the Battle of Timor. The then ruler of Lamaknen, the Loroh (king) Alfonsus Andreas Bere Tallo, welcomed the arrival the refugees, where they founded the village Lakus (in today's Desa Kewar).

As a result of the civil war between Augustine and Udt, a refugee movement from East Timorian villages came to the border from August 1975 onwards. Among them were many Bunak people. They came from Odomau, Holpilat, Lela, Aitoun, Holsa, Memo and Raifun. At the end of August, the conflict crossed over on the other side of the border. On the other hand, villages were destroyed, such as Henes in the Desa on the west side of the same name, which has not been rebuilt since. With the invasion of East Timor by Indonesia, which took place later in the following months had also caused more Bunak people to be driven out from from their villages to escape the invasion. Some crossed the border, others sought shelter in the woods, where some of the people spent up to three years in hiding. Village communities were thus torn apart and resettled in different places until 1999. Fate had also befell the village of Abis in Lamaknen district. Although the inhabitants returned to their village after their escape in 1975, the village was burned down near East Timor's border. In 1999, other refugees also came to Lamaknen district from East Timor after the independence of East Timor and remained there to this day. There was fighting with the locals and in the process fields, huts and streets were destroyed.

Southwest of Cova Lima

Recently, the Bunak people migrated to the southwest of Cova Lima District in two independent waves not too long ago. The older group lives in a slightly higher areas of Suco Beiseuc (formerly known as Foholulik, 2010: 30% Bunak) and Suco Lalawa (35% Bunak). They came in a large stream of refugees from the community of Bobonaro, when they fled in the Second World War before the arrival of the Japanese army. Guerrilla units of the Allies had operated against the Japanese of Lolotoe and the village of Bobonaro, whereupon the Japanese troops carried out reprisals against the civilian population in Bobonaro in August 1942. This probably cost several tens of thousands of people their lives and drove others to flee.

The final wave are those Bunak people who settled in the lowland between Suai and its borders. They were forcibly resettled from northern Sucos of Cova Lima District, such as Fatululic and Taroman, by Indonesian occupation forces. The official target was a development program for rice cultivation. However, in 1977, many parts of East Timor were forcibly displaced from parts of remote area populations in order to prevent support for the Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor movement, (FRETILIN). The Indonesian army in East Timor set up so-called "Internment Camps", in which hundreds of thousands of civilians were also brought into these camps.

Malaka and southern Belu

The Bunak of Namfalus village (Desa Rainawe, Kobalima District) originate from the same escape wave of Bunak people in south Fohorem before the arrival of Japanese troops in the Second World War. Other Bunak people of this region are the descendants of the 5,000 refugees from Maucatar who left the former Dutch enclave after the takeover by the Portuguese. Those Bunak people joined these villages when they fled in 1975 and 1999 before the violence in East Timor broke out.

The resettlement of the Maucatar Bunak people led to controversy with the local Tetun Dili people, which is why the Bunak had to move repeatedly. It was only in the 1930s that the administration succeeded in locating the refugees at their present places of residence. The Bunak people of these individual places still trace their origin to certain places in Maucatar, such as those from Raakfao (Raakafau, Desa Babulu) in Fatuloro and those from Sukabesikun (Desa Litamali, Kobalima District) in Suco Belecasac. With the threat of amalgamation into their neighboring Tetun Dili people, they are still able to trace their origins.

Eastern Cova Lima

The Bunak settlements from Suai to Zumalai were also established only recently. The region was previously uninhabited. These new start-ups also have connections with their places of origin. Thus, Beco village has a deep relationship with Teda village, east of Lolotoe, even though the migration has been for several generations. Their dialect is actually close to that of the Lolotoe region, even if partial vocabulary was taken from the southwestern dialect. Other settlements emerged only during the Indonesian occupation when all villages from the north along the southern coastal road around Zumalai were resettled. Their dialect corresponds completely to that of the highlands.

Social organization

The social isolation has also been reinforced part of the reputation of Bunak people. They have been described as rough and aggressive by their neighbors. This characterization can also be found in a Bunak legend, in which Kemak people have long ears and the Bunak people have small ears. The metaphorical length of the ears in the Bunak people points to a short-tempered and impatient temperament, while the Kemak people are described as calm and patient.

Although Bunak and Atoin Meto people differ culturally, the social organization and the ecology of both cultures belong in the same context where both the cultures of Atoin Meto and Bunak people benefit from each other. The approach of the Bunak people from a cultural and linguistic point of view is so far that Louis Berthe described it in 1963 as a mixture of Papuans and Austronesian roots.