Ronald Reid's Three Topoi

Biography

Ronald F. Reid, a Professor of Communication Studies at the University of Massachusetts Amherst at Amherst, retired in 1991 after 32 years of teaching. Reid received a bachelor’s from Pepperdine, a master’s from University of New Mexico, and a Ph.D. from Purdue.

Territorial appeals

Territorial appeals “taps into the ‘lower’ instincts we share with the animal kingdom." As most animal species “mark off units of physical space” as “theirs” and will fight to retain that space, “many countries, led by the U.S., have developed a global sense of territoriality.” As a result, nations “regard physical space as property” and are prepared to defend that property. The object of the territorial appeal is gain support for war by convincing the audience that the country is in danger. Countries are more willing to support war when they feel their land is threatened. Just as “a defending animal’s willingness to fight correlates with the extent to which its territory is invaded,” a human's willingness to fight correlates with the extent to which his country is threatened.

Expansionism

Territorial appeals are often used to portray “expansionism as defensive by depicting it as a response to an existing outside threat or honorable effort to recover territory” that was unfairly taken. Thus, through territorial appeal, “even unjustified American imperialism…can be characterized as defensive.”

Encroachment appeals

Encroachment appeals are reminiscent of the domino theory. By “narrating recent ‘encroachments’ along the frontier,” the orator proposes these seemingly isolated attacks are part of a bigger takeover conspiracy.

Metaphysical appeals

There are some ideas/virtues countries assume as property. “A populace may be motivated to embark upon a course of war because of the threat posed to its national ideals by a competing ideology." Therefore, an orator can demonstrate a metaphysical territorial appeal by showing a threat to these ideals.

Ethnocentric appeals

The Ethnocentric Appeal states that if the individuals in a culture belong and identify to it, they are likely to think their culture is superior to other cultures. Ordinary ethnocentricity tends to lead those of a culture to ignore "outsiders." The Ethnocentric Appeal concentrates on creating an ‘Us vs. Them’ mentality. According to ethnocentricity, individuals often see their culture as superior to others. Therefore, when an orator is able to “establish a ‘realistic’ image of the enemy’s savagery,” he “eliminate[s] peace as a viable alternative to war." For example, during the American Revolution, the government told the people "God's plan of history called for progress, and the Revolution was an integral part of that plan." This sets up the notion that "they" were "evil" and we are "good" because God is on our side.

Emotional intensity

Pro-war rhetoric must "arouse ethnocentrism to a high level of emotional intensity." To achieve this:

1. The outsider must be hated. To create hatred, orators use “decivilizing vehicles – including references to acts of nature, mechanized processes, predaceous animals, barbarous actions, and violent crimes."
2. The opposing culture must be shown as a possible threat, using "intense language which exploits the most basic and strongly held cultural values." By making the opposing culture appear threatening, people of the "superior culture" will have more reason to be defensive.

Appeals to optimism

An Appeal to Optimism creates the illusion war is not bad and that it has its positives. This can be achieved in four ways:

1. By controlling the news, don’t tell the public what is going poorly.
2. Don’t give the impression of being unprepared.
3. Show we’re stronger than our “enemy” through our “nation’s material strengths."
4. Use scapegoats to blame for wartime losses; “when the scapegoats are removed, victory will follow." Reagan’s war on drugs “absolve[d] individuals of direct blame for their addictions and instead concentrate[d] on substances and nebulous ‘drug criminals’ as the enemies." Also, this is trying to show the audience that we are winning the war in different ways. This appeal uses spiritual phrases and phrases that show the strength of the military. “The necessity of protecting [a country's] ideals ‘transcends limited human powers'." This appeal is intended to instill hope and confidence for a victory in the audience’s mind.

Appeals to war aims

War Aims support former appeals and provide an ending goal for the war. Missions “rhetorically create the sense of an objective response." Nations want to bring about more peace and security. For example, the war aims for security protect from future territorial threats of enemies. Permanent peace will ensure security. If “the aim is total overthrow of the enemy,” the language is ambiguous, unclear, and utopian. For example, “We seek to create a massive change." If the “aims reflects a desire for security,” the language expresses clear anticipated results. Presidents will “define an issue [and] the possible resolutions to that issue."